How to Cite a Book - MLA Citation Guide - BibMe

what is a bibliography entry

what is a bibliography entry - win

What does "meaning" mean? This is actually a complex question! Here's a start-- the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on "Theories of Meaning". Notice the long bibliography, and see if you recognize any names.

What does submitted by TheCohen to APLang [link] [comments]

Domestic violence is not gendered

It's a well-established fact that men are just as likely to be the victims of domestic violence as women are:
Now, the question remains does this remained true for most severities?
And while a cursory glance of spousal homicides seems to back this up, the story doesn't stop there. And straight away you can tell that, even when it comes to homicide, the differences aren't that large.
Intimate Partner Homicide
Roughly 68% of intimate partner homicide victims are women. You can see a graph here:
https://imgur.com/a/6Hx9dJt
One thing to consider is that many people who murder their spouses are often trapped in abusive relationships themselves. Their murder is usually seen as being either retaliatory or in self-defense. This theory is known as the "battered partner syndrome", and it applies to both men and women (although there is something of a double standard when this explanation is applied to men).
One researcher noted that according to several key criteria of the so-called "battered woman syndrome", abused men fit the profile better than abused women do.
All of the evidence indicates that abused men fit the theory of the “battered woman” better than abused women do.
Brown, G. A. (2004). Gender as a factor in the response of the law-enforcement system to violence against partners. Sexuality and Culture, 8(3-4), 3-139.
http://www.familyofmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Grant_Partner_Violence.pdf
Another thing to notice is that the rate of men who are murdered by intimate partners has decreased over the years in comparison to women. In fact, some 40 years ago, women murdered their male partners at roughly the same rate as the reverse. Research suggests that this change in prevalence is because domestic violence shelters for women were opened during the same time period (source here). Instead of resorting to murder, many women can now escape their abuse through other means that are not available to men.
Speculation is that if domestic violence against men was taken as seriously as domestic violence against women, the rate of murdered women would go down as well. Since abused men are left with fewer non-violent options compared to abused women, they often end up resorting to suicide or murder in order to escape their abuse.
Of course, none of this is meant to downplay the problem of murdered spouses. Instead, I want to provide context, and propose a solution: If men were given better options to escape from abusive relationships (including better divorce options that don't ruin them financially or cost them access to their children), then there would be fewer women murdered by their partners. Better domestic violence resources for men wouldn't just help men, but would also help women.
And despite all of this, 68% doesn't represent some kind of huge majority where male victims are a simple side note in the discussion. It also happens to be the only data point that skews towards women on this topic. And it represents the smallest number of victims overall, even compared to other forms of serious abuse. Put simply, spousal murder is incredibly rare, regardless of gender.
Rates of serious injury and hospitalization
It's probably best to describe research in this category as "mixed". But that is because most studies find rates that are fairly close to being the same for men and women, with only small deviations away from the middle. For example, a 2008 study conducted on college campuses (in 32 different countries) found that "severe assault" affected men 42% of the time, and women 58% of the time (Table 1, page 258). Another study found that 62% of people injured by intimate partners in heterosexual relationships were women. These are the types of studies people quote when they talk about domestic violence against women being worse than it is against men. And as you can see, that kind of conclusion is tempered by findings that aren't as dramatic as they're often implied to be.
There are also quite a few studies that show rates that are higher for men than they are for women. For example, the 1975 US National Family Violence Survey found that 4.6% of men and 3.8% of women had experienced "severe" forms of domestic violence (among all forms of domestic violence, the rate was 12% for men and 11.6% for women) (source). Several other national surveys have found that "serious" cases of domestic violence tend to involve women as abusers, and men as victims, more often than the reverse. This is true even in years where the overall rate of male perpetration was higher than it was for female perpetration (like in the 2001 National Violence Against Women Survey, cited below). And when looking only at cases that require professional medical attention, 58% of victims are men (source also cited below).
Still, myths about this continue to persist and are taken as fact, despite the data clearly indicating something very different.
16% of men and 14% of women report being seriously injured by their partner.
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised conflict tactics scales (CTS2) development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of family issues, 17(3), 283-316.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/019251396017003001
Assaulted men are more likely than assaulted women to experience serious attacks by being hit with an object, beat up, threatened with a knife or being knifed.
Hoff, B. H. (2001). The risk of serious physical injury from assault by a woman intimate: A re-examination of national violence against women survey data on type of assault by an intimate. MenWeb on-line Journal (ISSN: 1095-5240 http://www.menweb.org/NVAWSrisk.htm). Retrieved from Web on Jan, 18, 2011.
1.8% of men and 1.2% of women reported that their injuries required first aid, while 1.5% of men and 1.1% of women reported that their injuries needed treated by a doctor or nurse.
Headey, B., Scott, D., & De Vaus, D. (1999). Domestic violence in Australia: are women and men equally violent?. Australian Social Monitor, 2(3), 57.
https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=759479315231736;res=IELAPA
The least commonly reported violence was severe perpetration (<1.0% of total sample or 5% of violent relationships, n = 32), where it appears more women (1.6%; n = 29) than men (.9%; n = 2) reported performing such violence...Other findings showed that men reported being the victim of severe violence (3.%; n = 51) more frequently than women (1.9%; n = 35); but, this differences was only marginally significant.
Williams, S. L., & Frieze, I. H. (2005). Patterns of violent relationships, psychological distress, and marital satisfaction in a national sample of men and women. Sex Roles, 52(11-12), 771-784.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stacey_Williams3/publication/30846401_Patterns_of_Violent_Relationships_Psychological_Distress_and_Marital_Satisfaction_in_a_National_Sample_of_Men_and_Women/links/02e7e52332186a94f3000000.pdf
Studies of undergraduate college students found that men sustained higher levels of moderate violence than women with severe violence being rare for both women and men (Katz, Kuffel, & Coblentz, 2002) and 29% of males and 35% of females reported perpetrating physical aggression; 12.5% of the males and 4.5% of the females reported receiving severe physical aggression; 14% of females reported that they were the sole perpetrators of aggression — injuries were sustained by 8.4% of males and 5% of females (Hines & Saudino, 2002). These rates, which suggest gender symmetry in the perpetration of relationship violence, are not unique and Fiebert (2004) has amassed a bibliography of 159 peer-reviewed publications finding equal or greater aggression by females than males. The total collected sample is greater than 109,000. An earlier version was published in 1997 (Fiebert, 1997).
Carney, M., Buttell, F., & Dutton, D. (2007). Women who perpetrate intimate partner violence: A review of the literature with recommendations for treatment. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12(1), 108-115.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Donald_Dutton/publication/222426549_Women_Who_Perpetrate_Intimate_Partner_Violence_A_Review_of_the_Literature_With_Recommendations_for_Treatment/links/5c465a1592851c22a386f74b/Women-Who-Perpetrate-Intimate-Partner-Violence-A-Review-of-the-Literature-With-Recommendations-for-Treatment.pdf
Psychological Abuse and Suicide
Focusing just on rates of physical violence discounts several other forms of domestic abuse, including psychological abuse, which often results in the victim committing suicide. And in terms of total deaths, this is actually a bigger killer than homicide. As many as 17% to 26% of all suicide deaths may be the result of intimate partner abuse.
In particular,
When domestic violence related suicides are combined with domestic violence homicides, the total numbers of domestic violence related deaths are higher for males than females.
Davis, R. L. (2010). Domestic violence-related deaths. Journal of aggression, conflict and peace research, 2(2), 44.
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.5042/jacpr.2010.0141/full/html
Abuse through the legal system, social manipulation, and false allegations
Women have been shown to engage in higher rates of coercive control and to use the threat of false allegations of domestic abuse and sexual assault to control their victims. As such, this represents a rather unique form of abuse primarily limited to female-on-male domestic violence.
‘She said “what are you gonna do? I’ll start screaming rape and you’re up in court tomorrow, do you think they’ll believe anything you’ve got to say?’’'
The legal system itself commonly gets abused, especially when children are involved. The so-called "silver bullet" refers to the fact that judges believe women by default, and will remove a child from the father's care if the mother lies about abuse. Up to 50% of child abuse cases, 70% of domestic violence cases, and 90% of restraining orders are estimated to be either false or baseless (which basically means "frivolous" in a legal context).
Not only are children wielded by abusers against their victims, but financial assets are also commonly held over their heads as well. The fact that family court is incredibly biased against fathers gets exploited and used as a form of abuse in its own right.
While these cases are not physically violent, I think it is important to realize that they have the potential to ruin lives, and can even lead to suicide. "I never put my hands on you" is not an excuse. This type of abuse is just as harmful and can be just as deadly, as physical abuse.
Unreported Cases
Research indicates that men have a tendency to underreport their abuse. It is estimated that men are 3 to 6 times less likely to report their abuse compared to women (source 1, source 2). Men are also less likely to press charges and are more likely to be intimidated against standing trial. And to make matters worse, the police are less likely to take male victims seriously compared to female victims, sometimes even arresting the man instead of the woman (source 1, source 2, source 3, source 4).
This pattern is so pronounced that when laws were passed requiring the police to automatically press charges when called for domestic disturbances, the number of women arrested on domestic violence charges increased dramatically. This has been referred to as an "unintended consequence" by the proponents of these bills, who thought that they would see an increase in the number of arrests for men instead (source).
Anyways, thanks for reading! And credit to u/Oncefa2 for some of this.
submitted by gregathon_1 to UnpopularFacts [link] [comments]

The Resurrection According to Paul: A Guide to Paul's Understanding of the Resurrection

Introduction: This post attempts to show that Paul could not have conceived of a resurrection body where the deceased earthly body is left behind in the grave. As John Granger Cook hypothesizes:
There is no fundamental difference between Paul’s conception of the resurrection body and that of the Gospels.
(John Granger Cook, Empty Tomb, Resurrection, Apotheosis, Mohr Siebeck, 2018, pp. 1)
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The Resurrection of the Dead, According to Paul

The most frequently used verb for resurrection in the New Testament is ἐγείρω/egeirō. Throughout the chapter, Paul uses the verb "egeirō" for the resurrection of the dead (cf. 1 Cor 15:15-16, 29, 32, 35, 42-43, 44, 52). Surprisingly, however, despite it's importance in the NT and it's central place as language for the resurrection, this verb has received little detailed study. This verb was not a slippery term as often assumed. Until the reaction of the Gnostics in the 2nd century and later, this word was used to denote bodily resurrection by both Jews and pagans, and both groups continued to use "egeiro" to denote bodily resurrection into late antiquity (cf. John Granger Cook, Empty Tomb, Resurrection, Apotheosis, Mohr Siebeck, 2018, pp. 574). James P. Ware writes:
The Greek verb ἐγείρω has a more restricted semantic range, and cannot mean raise or rise in this wider sense of elevation or ascension. Rather, ἐγείρω means to get up or stand up, that is, to rise from a supine to a standing position. Thus the verb is regularly used to denote the raising or rising up of one who has fallen (LXX Exod 23.5; LXX1 Kings 5.3; LXX Eccles 4.10; Jdt 10.23; Philo, Agr. 122; Mut. 56; Migr. 122; Matt 12.11; Mark 9.27; Acts 9.8; 1 Clem 59.4). It is also used of one kneeling or prostrate being raised back to a standing position (LXX 1 Kings 2.8; LXX 2 Kings 12.17; LXX Ps 112.7; LXX Dan 10.10; Philo, Ebr. 156; Post. 149; Matt 17.7; Luke 11.8; Acts 10.26; Hermas, Vis. 2.1.3; 3.2.4). The verb is used of one lying down, very frequently of one lying sick,who is restored to a standing posture (Matt 8.15; 9.5, 6, 7; Mark 1.31; 2.9, 11, 12; Luke 5.23–4; John 5.8 ; Acts3.6-7; James 5.15). The verb is also frequently used of one sitting who rises to stand (LXX Ps 126.2; LXX Isa 14.9; Matt 26.46; Mark 3.3; 10.49; 14.42; Luke 6.8; John 11.29; 13.4; 14.31; Hermas, Vis. 1.4.1). In no instance within ancient Greek literature does ἐγείρω denote the concept of ascension, elevation or assumption. Rather, it denotes the action whereby one who is prone, sitting, prostrate or lying down is restored to a standing position.
(James P. Ware, The Resurrection of Jesus in the Pre-Pauline Formula of 1 Cor 15.3–5, New Testament Studies, 2014, p. 494)
The 2018 Brill Encyclopedia entry affirms Ware's work. Cook in his 2018 monologue (Mohr Siebeck) conjured up a gallery of examples in ancient literature where "egeiro" simply entailed standing up from a supine position (and not ascension). This following short gallery derives from Cook's book Empty Tomb, Resurrection, Apotheosis, Mohr Siebeck, 2018 (pp. 13-15, 19-20):
(1) In a passage in the Iliad, Nestor wakes Diomedes:
Wake up, son of Tydeus, why do you sleep the whole night through? ... So he spoke, and he leapt up very quickly. (Homer Il. 10.159, 162)
"Wake up" includes the sense of “getting up,” or at least implies it.
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(2) The chorus (that is, the Furies) in the Eumenides of Aeschylus cry to each other to wake/get up after Orestes has escaped:
Wake/get up, you get her up, and I [will get] you up. Do you still sleep? Stand up, shaking off sleep. (Aeschylus Eum. 140–1)
The command to stand clarifies the action (motion upward) implicit in the command to “wake” or “get up.
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(3) Cytherea, in Bion’s Epitaph for Adonis, uses the verb to coax her dying lover upward, even if for one last kiss:
Rouse yourself a little, Adonis, and kiss me for a final time; kiss me as much as your kiss has life, until you breathe your last into my mouth, and your spirit flows into my heart ... (Bion [Epitaph. Adon.] 1.45–8)
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(4) An idyll attributed to Theocritus about two fishermen illustrates the motion of standing up straight from a supine position:
And their customary labor roused up the fishermen, and chasing the sleep from their eyelids, provoked speech in their minds. (Theocritus Id. 21.20–1)
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(5) In a much later example from Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic emperor contemplates the occasional difficulty of waking/getting up from sleep:
Whenever you wake/get up from sleep with difficulty, remember that according to your condition and human nature you perform social activities, and that sleeping is something also shared with irrational animals. (Marcus Aurelius Med. 8.12)
The active component of the verb (i.e., getting up) is readily apparent in the emperor’s text.
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(6) In Aristophanes’ Clouds, a father attempts to get his sleeping son up:
(Strepsiades) But first I wish to wake him/rouse him up. How then could I rouse him up in the gentlest way? How? Phidippides, my little Phidippides. (Phidippides) What, father? (Str.) Kiss me, and give me your right hand. (Aristophanes Nub. 78–81)
Presumably, Strepsiades sits or stands up after his father takes his hand. But the verb probably contains, even here, the sense of rising up from his supine position, since the father clearly intends to get his son into an upright position, as the reference to his “hand” makes clear.
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(7) In his Frogs, Aristophanes includes a character who roused himself up (or “woke up”), after Dionysus recounts his exploits to Heracles: "and then I roused myself up" (Aristophanes Ran. 51).
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(8) An ancient scholiast also believed the verb indicates “getting up,” since it implies that Dionysus dreamed of his alleged naval victory:
And then I woke up: it is a joke about Dionysus. And then, he said, I got up from a dream; making it clear that a dream accomplished these things. (Scholia in Aristophanem Ran. 51)
Clearly the scholiast believes that a seme of “upward motion” belongs to the verb.
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(9) In the Rhesus the king’s charioteer awakes from sleep when he dreams that the king’s horses are being ridden by wolves:
And I roused up from sleep warding off the beasts [wolves] from the horses. For the night terror urged me. And raising my head, I hear the moaning of the dying. A warm stream of new blood from the wound of my master falls on me, as he died hard. I rise upright, my hand empty of any spear ... ([Euripides] Rhesus 787–92).
This is a clear example of the spatial motion upward contained in the verb.
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(10) An ordinary inscription from Rome also provides striking additional evidence. The last line from this burial inscription says ("ἐντεῦθεν οὐθὶς ἀποθανὼν ἐγ[ε]ίρετ[αι]") (‘no one who has died arises from here’). In this inscription, the use of ἐντεῦθεν (‘from here’) together with ἐγείρω unambiguously indicates the concept of getting up or arising from the tomb (IGUR III.1406).
​
There are further arguments in favor of the notion that Paul is arguing for a resurrected body that is continuities to the body that is laid in the tomb, and against the Martin, Engberg-Pedersen, and Borg view of the resurrected body being some sort of ethereal body (see Ware's article here):
  1. Within 15:36–49, which is structured by twelve antithetically paired verbs (that is, six pairs of verbs) denoting death (or the mortal state) and resurrection (or the risen state), the subject of these antithetical verbal pairs is one and the same both for verbs denoting death, and those denoting resurrection. The subject throughout is the perishable body, which “dies” but “is made alive” again by God (15:36), which is “sown” (speiretai) in mortality and death, but “raised” (egeiretai) to imperishable life (15:42–44). This basic observation, which is nonetheless commonly ignored by interpreters, has profound exegetical implications. Paul does not describe resurrection as an event in which x (the present body) is sown, but y (a body distinct from the present body) is raised, but in which a single x (the present body) is sown a perishable x, but raised an imperishable x.
  2. "Throughout 15:50–54 [SEE DIAGRAM BELOW], the subject of the verbs Paul uses to describe the resurrection event is the corruptible body of flesh, whether laid in the tomb or still living at the parousia. It is this present body that is raised and transformed. Indeed, the fourfold repetition of “this” (τοῦτο) emphasizes that it is this mortal, perishable body that is the subject of the transformation. “The subject persists throughout the radical change." Mortal flesh, far from being excluded from this divine, saving event, is the subject of that event. (Ware, "Paul's Understanding of the Resurrection," pp. 825). The fact that Paul envisions the bodies of the living to be transformed rather than annihilated is one more clear indicator of the physical and bodily character of the resurrection of the dead in his thought, since he envisions the same "change" for all (1 Cor 15:51).
  3. In addition to the verb egeiro, Paul in 1 Corinthians 15 employs a variety of additional verbs to denote the resurrection event: zoopoieo (“make alive”; 15:36, 45; cf. 15:22), phoreo (“be clothed”; 15:49), alasso (“change”; 15:51, 52), and enduo (“clothe”; 15:53, 54). These additional verbs are significant, for they each express, in different ways, not the annihilation or replacement of the fleshly body, but its revival (zoopoieo), investiture (phoreo, enduo), and transformation (alasso).
  4. The series of contrasts within 15:36–54 bet ween the ante-mortem and risen body do not occur in the subject of these periods, but in their predicates (verbs and verbal complements). And these predicate complements invariably describe a change of quality rather than of substance, in which what was once perishable, dishonored, weak, and mortal is endowed with imperishability, glory, power, and immortality (15:42–43; 15:52–54). Paul’s series of oppositions does not describe two bodies distinct in substance, but two contrasting modes of existence of the same body, one prior to and the other subsequent to the resurrection.
For #2 (from Ware's article):
Subject Verb Predicate
will be clothed with image of the Man from heaven
V. 51 we all will be changed ______________________
V. 52 the dead will be raised imperishable
we will be changed ______________________
V. 53 this perishable must be clothed with imperishability
this mortal body must be clothed with
V. 54 this perishable body is clothed with imperishability
this mortal body is clothed with immortality
Moreover, Paul explicitly teaches a resurrection where the earthly body itself is transformed instead of discarded in his other epistles. See, for example, Philippians 3:21:
[Jesus Christ] will transform our lowly body to be conformed to his glorious body, in accordance with the outworking of his power whereby he is able to subject the entire universe to himself.
When one reads the context of Phil 3:1-4:1, it becomes clear that, just like, 1 Thessalonians 4 and 1 Corinthians 15, Paul's thought embraces the whole eschatological event, involving both the living and the dead. On Philippians 3:21 for instance, the exclusion of the resurrection from this passage will not work exegetically. This verse needs to be read within the larger passage, Philippians 3:1-4:1. 3:21 picks up, and brings to a climax, the thought in 3:10-11, where Paul expresses his personal hope that he "may by any means possible arrive at the resurrection from the dead." The "we" of Philippians 3:20-21 picks up the "I" of Philippians 3:10-11. In light of 3:10-11, it is impossible that the thought of 3:21 excludes the resurrection. Than there is Rom 8:11:
If the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, he who raised Christ from the dead will give life to your mortal bodies also through his Spirit that dwells in you.
Lastly, in ancient Judaism there were a number of options for the afterlife: eternal soul, resurrection of the body, awakening of the spirit, or nothing. It seems, however, that whenever Jewish texts affirmed of resurrection (i.e. upward movement), they affirmed of bodily resurrection. In other words, while there were many different beliefs in the afterlife, there were not various types of "resurrection" beliefs. As John Granger Cook says in his recent book, "The current fashion among some scholars of asserting that there were various concepts of “resurrection” in Second Temple Judaism seems fundamentally wrong [...] Spirits or souls do not rise from the dead in ancient Judaism, people do. (2018, 569).
Many Jewish texts spoke of bodily resurrection. This gallery here is also derived mostly from Cook's 2018 monologue (chapter 6):
(1) Daniel 12:2-3 (II B.C.E.)
“Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt. Those who are wise shall shine like the brightness of the sky, and those who lead many to righteousness, like the stars forever and ever.
"Daniel is almost certainly referring to the resurrection of the dead. [...] The decisive confirmation of the bodily nature of resurrection in Daniel is the conclusion of the book where the seer is told that he will himself rise from the dead" (Cook, 465, 467):
12:13 But you, go your way to the end and rest; you shall rise [“stand”] for your reward at the end of days (NRSV mod.)
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(2) 2 Maccabees 7:7, 9-11, 23 (II B.C.E.)
7 After the first brother had died in this way, they brought forward the second for their sport. They tore off the skin of his head with the hair, and asked him, “Will you eat rather than have your body punished limb by limb?” 8 He replied in the language of his ancestors and said to them, “No.” Therefore he in turn underwent tortures as the first brother had done. [...] After him, the third was the victim of their sport. When it was demanded, he quickly put out his tongue and courageously stretched forth his hands, 11 and said nobly, “I got these from Heaven, and because of his laws I disdain them, and from him I hope to get them back again.”
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23 The creator of the cosmos, the one who shaped the origin of the human and invented the origin of all things, shall restore breath and life to you again with mercy, since now you disdain your very selves for the sake of his laws.
"2 Maccabees represents one of the most intensely physical understandings that can be found in early Jewish literature. The martyrs profess their hope in a resurrection in which the very same members of the body will be restored to them in a new and everlasting life (7:7, 9–11)." (C.D Elledge, Resurrection of the Dead in Early Judaism, 200 BCE-CE 200, Oxford Press, 2017, p. 26-27)
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(3) 1 Enoch 92:3:
The righteous one will arise from sleep; he will arise and walk in the paths of righteousness, and all his path and his journey (will be) in piety and eternal mercy.
"There seems to be no fundamental reason for rejecting the conclusion that the text refers to the resurrection of the righteous and their subsequent behavior. The image of walking apparently envisions a “physical resurrection from the dead.” The emphasis on physically rising from sleep, and not just waking from sleep, also supports the contention that the reference is to resurrection." (Cook: 490-491)
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(4) Syrian Baruch (Late I C.E.)
"2 Bar 30:1 describes the fate of those who hope in the Messiah:
And it shall come to pass after these things, when the time of the advent of the Messiah is fulfilled, that He shall return in glory. Then all who have fallen asleep in hope of Him shall rise again.
The author then describes the appearance of the souls of the righteous and the wicked (2 Bar 30:3–5). The Lord announces the resurrection to Baruch (2 Bar 42:8):
And the dust shall be called, and there shall be said to it: “Give back that which is not yours, and raise up all that you have kept until its time.”
The prophet queries the Almighty (2 Bar 49:2):
In what shape will those live who live in Your day? Or how will the splendor of those who (are) after that time continue?
He wonders if their form will be changed (2 Bar 49:3):
Will they then resume this form of the present, and put on these members that chains clothe, which are now involved in evils, and in which evils are consummated, or will you perchance change these things which have been in the world as also the world?
The question is about the nature of the resurrection body. The same image appears in this text (2 Bar 50:2–3):
For the earth shall then assuredly restore the dead, which it now receives, in order to preserve them. It shall make no change in their form, but as it has received, so shall it restore them, and as I delivered them unto it, so also shall it raise them. 3 For then it will be necessary to show the living that the dead have come to life again
This is undoubtedly resurrection of the body. The shape of the wicked will then become more evil, and the shape of the righteous will “become progressively more glorious” (2 Bar 51:2–5)." (Cook, pp. 496-497)
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(5) The Fourth Sibylline Oracle (Late I C.E.)
God himself will again give shape to the bones and ashes of people, and will raise mortals again, as they were before. (Sib. Or. 4.181-2)
"The Fourth Sibylline Oracle affirms that resurrection bodies will have the same form as they did in life." (Cook: 500)
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(6) The Testament of Judah 25:1 (II B.C.E -II C.E.)
And after these things shall Abraham and Isaac and Jacob arise unto life (25:1)
"The verb’s use [arise] indicates bodily resurrection" (Cook: 456)
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(7) T. Ab. 7:17 (I-II C.E.)
Bodily resurrection occurs in T. Ab.:
“At that time all flesh shall rise” (T. Ab. 7.17; the short recension)
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(8) SEG 15, 811 (II-III C.E.)
"A funerary inscription for a Jewish woman named Regina from the Monteverde catacombs [says]:
She will live again, return to the light again. For she can hope that she will rise to the life promised as a real assurance to the worthy and the pious in that she has deserved to possess an abode in the hallowed land.
Joseph S. Park writes that surgat “seems to evoke an image of the deceased literally rising from the grave” (Park, Conceptions, p. 167)." (Cook: 474)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

An Ethereal Resurrection?

According to many, what Paul thinks of is an ethereal resurrection - a heavenly body discontinuities with the body that decomposes in the ground. Thus Paul states that we are raised in a "spiritual body" (1 Cor 15:44), which he contrasts with the earthly body ("it is sown a physical body"), and that "flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God" (1 Cor 15:50). Paul also seems to believe that the earthly body is like a seed husk - discarded, while we are transformed into a new ethereal body (cf. 1 Cor 15:36-37). 2 Corinthians seems to be even clearer when Paul says in 2 Cor 5:1 that “the earthly tent we live in is destroyed (kataluthē)” and in 2 Cor 5:3, where Paul says that the earthly body “will be taken off (ekdysamenoi).” Thus, the source of the resurrected body is not the present earthly body, but it will be brought from heaven (2 Cor 5:2).
(1) On 1 Corinthians 15:44, what Paul has in mind when he says "it is raised a spiritual body" is a physical body that is empowered by pneuma, not made by it. The first indication of this is the use of the verb "egeiro." While egeiro appears in some contexts in which the soul is stimulated or roused, "nowhere in classical Greek or in the Greek of Jewish texts does a soul (or spirit) “rise” in a text that describes a resurrection" (John Granger Cook, Empty Tomb, Resurrection, Apotheosis, Mohr Siebeck, 2018, pp. 36). This was true until gnostic interpreters of the second century (ibid, 36). Furthermore, in 1 Cor 2:14-15, Paul makes a similar distinction between psychikos and pneumatikos. 1 Cor 2:14-15 says:
Those who are unspiritual do not receive the gifts of God’s Spirit, for they are foolishness to them, and they are unable to understand them because they are spiritually discerned. Those who are spiritual discern all things, and they are themselves subject to no one else’s scrutiny.
It makes no sense imagining Paul speaking about a person composed of soul verses those composed of pneuma. The adjective pneumatikos is used to refer to people or things empowered by the Spirit of God, such as: palpable manna and water (10:3–4), a tangible rock (10:4), and flesh and blood human beings (3:1; 14:37). Used with soma in 15:44, pneumatikos indicates that the risen body will be a physical body empowered by pneuma. James P. Ware writes:
The adjective that Paul here contrasts with πνευματικός is not σάρκινος (cognate with σάρξ), referring to the flesh, but ψυχικός (cognate with ψυχή), referring to the soul. This adjective is used in texts outside the NT, without exception, with reference to the properties or activities of the soul (e.g., 4 Macc 1:32; Aristotle, Eth. nic. 3.10.2; Epictetus, Diatr. 3.7.5–7; Plutarch, Plac. philos. 1.8). Modifying σῶμα as here, with reference to the present body, the adjective describes this body as given life or activity by the soul. The adjective has nothing to do with the body’s composition but denotes the source of the mortal body’s life and activity.
(Ware, "Paul's Understanding of the Resurrection," pp. 832).
Thus, “if σῶμα πνευματικόν in this context describes the composition of the future body, as a body composed only of spirit, its correlate σῶμα ψυχικόν would perforce describe the composition of the present body, as a body composed only of soul. Paul would assert the absence of flesh and bones not only from the risen body but from the present mortal body as well!” (Ware, "Paul's Understanding of the Resurrection," pp. 832-833).
Lastly, "the notion of a risen body composed of corporeal pneuma perforce entails (as Engberg-Pedersen has demonstrated) a specifically Stoic and pantheistic understanding of the relation of the divine to the cosmos, with the corollary that Paul conceived of the Spirit of God as a corporeal entity, composed of the same substance as the sun, moon, and stars (see Engberg-Pedersen, Cosmology and Self, 8–38; idem, “Material Spirit,” 184–87). [...] Such a reconstruction of Paul’s thought [is] without historical plausibility (cf. Rom 1:20–25; 4:17; 11:33–36; 1 Cor 8:4–6; 10:7; 10:14; 1 Thess 1:9–10)." (Ware, "Paul's Understanding of the Resurrection," pp. 833-834).
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(2) On 1 Corinthians 15:36-37. Paul is comparing the naked seed (A) placed in the ground with the human dead body (B) that is placed in the ground; so as the (future) plant body (A') will be, so will the resurrection body (B') be. So as A is to B, A' is to B' - if one were to commit the analogy to symbolic form. The analogy points to both the material continuity of the mortal and risen body and the transformation of the mortal body that takes place in the resurrection event. As James P. Ware points out:
What is often missed is the critical significance of verse 39 for our understanding of resurrection in Paul. For the juxtaposition of 15:39 with 15:37 and 15:40–41 shows that here, reflecting the normal usage of Paul’s Greek-speaking audience, “flesh” (sarx) and “body” (sōma) function as synonymous terms for the human body. Paul’s analogy in 15:36–41 assumes both that the risen body will be a body (15:37–38, 40–41) and that it will be composed of flesh (15:39). Paul’s reminder of the various kinds of flesh (15:39), bodies (15:40), and bodily splendor (15:41) functions to prepare the reader for the depiction of transformed embodiment to follow in 15:42–54, in which the risen body of flesh is differentiated from its mortal counterpart not by change of substance, but by its freedom from weakness, mortality, and decay.
(James P. Ware, Paul's Theology in Context, Eerdmans, 2019, pp. 213-214)
Furthermore, Paul’s saying in 1 Cor 15:37, γυμνὸς κόκκος, has nothing to do with a Platonist naked soul or Stoic imagery of sowing and seeds. The context itself indicates that stoicism or Platonism is not in the mind of Paul when he says "γυμνὸς κόκκος." Instead, as John Granger Cook says, texts from Greek biology and agriculture are far more revealing. See John Granger Cook, A Naked Seed: Platonism, Stoicism, or Agriculture in 1Cor 15,37?, Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft | Volume 111: Issue 2, 2020. 1 Clement and 3 Corinthians, for example, could be instructive for how we interpret 1 Cor 15:37, for the authors also refer to the resurrection using the image of naked seeds, and they are early interpretations to the preferred biological/agricultural reading of 1 Cor 15:37. 1 Clement says:
The sower went out and cast into the ground each of the seeds, which falling on the ground dry and naked decay. Then out of decay, the magnificence of the master’s providence raises them up, and from one seed more grow and produce fruit. (1 Clem 24:2)
"Clement’s imagery is physical, and the seeds are not naked souls, nor does he include any Stoic metaphors" (ibid, 308). 3 Corinthians says:
For they do not know, Corinthians, that the seed of wheat or other varieties, which are cast into the ground naked and which decay below, are raised by the will of God in body and clothed; so that not only is the body raised that was cast (into the ground), but it is abounding, upright, and blessed. (3Cor = AcPlCor 2:26–27)
3 Corinthian's imagery is clearly a flesh and bones resurrection.
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(3) On 1 Corinthians 15:50, "flesh and blood" is not a synonym for "physical" or "that which is opposed to the physical." It is a semitism (or a figure of speech) for mortality. Thus, Paul is saying that mortality does not inherit the kingdom of God. John Granger Cook writes:
“flesh and blood” – in particular its use as a rabbinic expression which simply refers to human nature in its fragility and not simply to “physical flesh.” An early rabbinic example is from the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael where Exod 12:12 “I am the Lord” is explained as “What flesh and blood cannot say” (Mek. Pesach 1:7). Another occurrence is a discussion of Exod 15:1 “I will sing unto the Lord for he is really exalted,” which is explained by an example that begins “when a king of flesh and blood enters a province … (Mek. Shirata 3:1)
(John Granger Cook, Empty Tomb, Resurrection, Apotheosis, Mohr Siebeck, 2018, pp. 585)
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(4) On 2 Corinthians 5:1-5, there is nothing in this passage that conflicts with Paul's robust doctrine of a "flesh and bones" resurrection. First off, in verse 3, what Paul wrote was endysamenoi (I put on, clothe), instead of ekdusamenoi (having put off). The manuscript evidence that supports this is overwhelming (p46 א B C D2 Ψ 0243. 33. 1739. 1881. Byz, lat, sy, co; Cl.). The evidence for ekdusamenoi is far less (see: Kevin Daugherty, Naked Bodies and Heavenly Clothing, Journal of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism 8 [2011–12], pp. 214). 2 Cor 5:4 is instructive on this regard when Paul says: "not that we wish to be unclothed (ekdusasthai) but more fully clothed (ependusasthai)." This expresses both the continuity of the risen body with the mortal body, and its discontinuity, in its transformation to imperishability through the work of the Spirit.
"Destroyed" in 2 Cor 5:1a is referring to death. 2 Cor 5:1 than stresses upon the transformation of the resurrection body when it says that we will receive an eternal heavenly body. It does not, however, indicate that the earthly body is left behind (cf. 2 Cor 5:3-4). That Paul in v. 2 is thinking of the heavens as a place where some kind of ethereal body that is now literally existent is probably false. Just like in 1 Cor 15:47, when Paul speaks in v. 2 of "the heavens" he is referring to God in the fullness of his presence and glory. Paul thus describes the risen body as "from heaven" in v. 2 in that it is the direct work of the Spirit of God (cf. 1 Cor 15:47-49).
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(5) On Josephus, "at no point in any of these texts does Josephus adopt the clear verbs for resurrection used by the Hellenistic translators of Dan 12:2. His language resembles reincarnation far closer than the texts of resurrection surveyed in this chapter." (John Granger Cook, Empty Tomb, Resurrection, Apotheosis, Mohr Siebeck, 2018, pp. 513). Paul in 1 Cor 15 is expressing a flesh and bones resurrection as evidence by his use of the language that Josephus here starkly avoids: the Jewish language of resurrection (egeiro and anastasis).
Plus, as D. Boyarin writes: “Josephus’s allusion ... to the idea of metempsychosis is presumably an attempt to present resurrection in a form more familiar to his audience.” (Border Lines. The Partition of Judaeo-Christianity, 2004, pp. 13–22).
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Bibliography

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How music expresses and exorcises grief in Three Colours Blue (Krzysztof Kieślowski, 1993)

Three Colours Blue is like magic to me, the way it's put together just seems so perfect, it never fails to make me feel. It's like magic to me. I wrote an essay on how its use of music. It's quite long, so it might just be interesting to you if you already love (or at least enjoy) this film, but here it is anyway!
This essay is available with illustrative images here, as well as full bibliography: https://filmpositivity.com/2021/02/05/music-and-grief-in-three-colours-blue/
If you just want to read the text though, here it is:
Unplugging the Empathy Machine: The Inescapability of Music in Three Colours Blue Krzysztof Kieślowski, 1993)
(contains spoilers for Three Colours Blue)
I absolutely adore this film, the way it wordlessly allows intimate access to its main characters emotional state, and makes the audience feel. I wrote a little about it for a Film of the Month entry previously, but this is a much more intensive look into the film, and its use of music. I don’t talk about the quality of the music itself, but rather its narrative purpose and the ways it is used filmically. So I just want to state up front that composer for the film Zbigniew Preisner’s music is gorgeous throughout, and complements the film beautifully.
Three Colours Blue: Grief and Music
Roger Ebert described cinema as “the most powerful empathy machine in all the arts.” (Ebert 2005), the best means in the arts to feel and live in the experience of another human being, even if only for a brief time. Music is a huge part of the experiential nature of cinema, amplifying tone, feeling and character. Three Colours Blue (henceforth referred to as Blue) embodies and expresses grief through film form. It makes its audience feel, and seems itself to feel right along with us. Music is what most drives this expression and feeling. Music is the broken but still beating heart of the film.
Each film in the Three Colours trilogy corresponds to the colours of the French flag, and each is thematically linked to the ideals of the French motto “Liberty, equality, fraternity.”, albeit loosely. Blue is tied to liberty, and tells the story of Julie (Juliette Binoche), a wealthy young woman who, at the film’s beginning, is involved in a car crash which causes the death of her composer husband and young daughter. The rest of the film follows her attempt to deal with this grief by physically and emotionally detaching herself from the ties that bind her to other people, exploring in an extreme sense the theme of emotional liberty that Kieślowski intended for the film. On Blue’s enigmatic title, Kieślowski said:
“The moment something is named, the possibility of free interpretation is cut off. The moment you leave something unnamed, and leave the place of the name open, that place can be filled by anyone in the cinema, everyone who has bought a ticket.” (Coates 1999, p. 173)
Similarly, a piece of music does not need an explanatory title for it to illicit an emotional response, or be interpreted. This absence of elucidated meaning is evident in Blue’s depiction of Julie’s emotional state. Through its use of music, as well as camera, editing and, of course, colour, Blue wordlessly creates a sense of Julie’s anguish and allows the audience to share in her experience. The audience is given an opportunity to share in Julie’s experience and extract their own meaning from the film, almost from its very beginning.
A Sudden Loss
The opening scene depicts the car crash that kickstarts the film’s narrative, with an emphasis on close-ups of the car in motion and on Julie’s daughter Anna. Many shots are bathed in blue, as cinematographer Sławomir Idziak wrapped “the entire camera in blue gel and opening the back gate at key moments so that the film stock would be directly exposed to a nebulous blue light” (Woodward 2017, p. 63).
It’s clear the colour is to be a powerful source of meaning in this film, but at this point in the film that particular meaning has not yet been made clear. Julie is both absent and present in this opening scene, mirroring her emotional and physical withdrawal from friends and family in the rest of the film. While physically present in the car with her husband and daughter, she is not discernibly seen in any shots, which instead show Julie’s daughter Anna and establish a connection between Anna and the colour blue, which will recur throughout the film. At this time the focus of the film has not yet been established, instead showing an un-named and un-speaking group of people in a car before a tragic accident. Even the crash itself is not shown, the impact instead happening off-frame and then the wreckage viewed from a distance as a hitchhiker runs towards it to provide help.
The screen fades to black, in preparation for revealing its central focus. “In the blank screen, Blue testifies to an absence, a space which will fissure the film as representation. The film will remain split between intense subjectivity and the denial of vision.” (Wilson 1998, p. 351). So far, music is similarly absent from the film.
Following the crash and fade to black, there is a cut to a close up of a wispy looking thread or feather on a bed, with the background out of focus. A figure appears in this unfocused background, and hand reaches towards the camera, and there is a cut to an extreme close-up of an eye, with a doctor reflected on the iris. The doctor delivers the news of the death of Julie’s husband, and the camera cuts to a close-up revealing Julie’s entire face. She asks about her daughter, and the doctor confirms her death as well. Julie shuts her eyes tight and pushes her face towards the pillow, the camera remaining tightly focused on her face. Immediately following this there is a cut to a glass window being shattered. This creates an association of violence and devastation, the audience is sharing in Julie’s earth-shattering and world-changing grief: “From this point, the film is about the interior of Julie—her mind, her experience, her self—as she comes to terms with her traumatic injury” (Robinson 2007, p. 510). We cannot come to know her grief through words, but it will become clear and be exorcised through music.
Internal and External Music
As Julie views the funeral of her famous composer husband and daughter from her hospital bed, music makes its first appearance. The funeral march that accompanies the service soon becomes apparent as “a theme of the film, one that, like an extended motif, represents Julie’s suffering through memories of her dead husband.” (Paulus & McMaster 1999, p. 67-68). This music is introduced diegetically, but becomes meta-diegetic as the film goes on, appearing at times of great emotion for Julie, the theme playing in her mind and heard only by her and the audience.
Throughout Blue there is a distinct lack of non-diegetic music, music appears only diegetically or meta-diegetically, which gives the impression of music being a character itself, “a physical body that is not just a fiction and a fantasy, but represents reality, is a real part of Julie’s life, a genuine reality, however ugly or beautiful that reality might be.” (Paulus & McMaster, p. 71). This relative scarcity of music means the audience is particularly attuned to its affect and importance whenever it does appear.
The film begins with almost 9 minutes without music, so its first appearance through the funeral march theme highlights its significance, which will become more and more evident as the film continues, with music initially serving to give the audience a feeling for Julie’s inner emotional state. The March becomes inextricably linked to Julie’s grief as it plays while she watches the funeral on a portable TV under the covers of her hospital bed, a series of close-ups and extreme close-ups of her face and mouth forcing the audience to take-in and experience even the most minute of facial muscle movements, palpably demonstrating her grief and despair. As Julie reaches out to touch the TV screen displaying the coffins of her departed family, that feeling of being able to touch but still being separated is mirrored by the audience and its relationship to Julie through the cinema screen. The static on the TV screen by the funeral’s end signifies the end of Julie’s previous life, and the uncertainty of her future.
Experience and Appearance
In the realm of human experiences, Daniel Frampton notes that “appearances are real, they belong to being.” (2006, p. 40). Using a cube as an example to define intention and appearances, Frampton notes that only two or three sides of a cube can be seen at any given time, but the other sides can appear and be intended (and therefore experienced) in our minds, even though absent. (2006, p.40). For Blue, the audience can substitute this cube for Julie, the viewable sides of her being her physical form, words and actions, with the unseen and hidden side being her grief and internal emotions. Julie’s internal life and the depth of her grief is fully realised through her relationship to music, and Blue’s use of music in concert with image. We cannot phyiscally see it, but it is nonetheless fully experienced.
At this stage of the film, Julie has found she is unable to kill herself, but does not wish to live the same life as before. She resolves to sever all emotional and physical ties to her former life and sets about getting rid of all those things that attach her to it: her former home and possessions, former friends and loved ones. Significantly, she retrieves the sheet music for her deceased husbands unfinished Concert for the Unification of Europe and destroys it, the theme playing in Julie’s head as she throws it into the back of a garbage truck and as the sheet music is pulped, the music similarly becomes mangled and destroyed on the soundtrack itself. The destruction of art is a particularly powerful image, and Julie’s actions demonstrate the strength of her intention to disconnect, as well as emphasising the power and depth of her grief to the audience, as “Although music is not a living being, especially not a loved living being, the destruction of the score is experienced as the death of a loved person.” (Paulus & McMaster 1999, p. 80).
Blue and Blue
Through music, colour, and the closeness of the camera “We are given the sense that we follow always one step behind [Julie], attentive to her every perception, but mindful also of our distance from her consciousness.” (Wilson 1998, p. 352). As the film continues, music and the colour blue intrude on Julie with greater frequency and impact, and help elucidate her emotional state for the audience’s experience, as the “perception of distance is subtly collapsed as we see too that while never knowing Julie’s trauma, or her state of mind, we are nevertheless subject to her shattered perceptions and to the intrusion of her mental disturbance.” (Wilson 1998, p. 352). Music will continually find its way into Julie’s life and remind her of her past, such as when an outside street performer plays the theme from the unfinished concerto while Julie is sitting in a café. Music is a constant intruder. One night, sitting on the stairs outside her apartment, Julie closes her eyes. Flecks of blue light begin to appear on screen, and part of the Song for the Unification of Europe begins to play. Julie’s eyes snap open, and the music and lights stop immediately. She closes her eyes again, and the music and lights return. The music, a reminder of her old life, is inescapable. Through combination of sound and image, the audience knows that the music is playing inside Julie’s head, not simply as part of the film’s soundtrack. It is not exactly diegetic, but meta-diegetic, coming from within Julie herself.
Often, following intrusions like these are scenes of Julie in an overwhelmingly blue swimming pool, acting “as a barometer for Julie’s emotional condition” (Evans 2005, p. 80), and also doubling as a womb substitute (Olivier 2002, p. 122-123) and site of possible rebirth (Robinson 2007, p. 518). There are four of these scenes in all, and the second is perhaps the most emotionally and experientially powerful of them all, coming straight after Julie’s meeting with the hitch hiker who was first at the scene of her and her family’s car crash.
In this meeting, the hitch hiker attempts to return a gold necklace he found at the scene, and the sight and touch of it appears to trigger a powerful memory of the incident. There is no visual rendering of the memory, only the music of the Funeral March and a fade to black to indicate an abrupt moment of introspection, before fading back in some time later to continue the same scene. A fade is typically used in film to denote the passage of time or change of place (Bordwell et al 2017, p.251-252), but in this case Kieślowski goes against established film form and the visual language of cinema to instead use the fade to powerfully signify a retreat into the internal space of the character’s mind, with the re-appearing musical motif of the funeral march emphasising a link to Julie’s departed family, and the sustained period of blackness signifying deep introspection. The blackness lasts for about 10 seconds, and its unconventional use and placement make this time seem even longer, so by the time the film fades back in to continue the scene it is unclear how much time has actually been spent in introspection by Julie, only that it was a powerful emotional moment.
This meeting is immediately followed by the second swimming pool scene, where a suddenly remembered burst of music, a portion of the unfinished concerto, erupts into her head as she is exiting the pool, stopping her cold and causing her to slowly slip back into the pool and take refuge, curling up under the surface of the water seemingly attempting “more to drown her memory than drown herself.” (Wilson 1998, p. 354). As Julie retreats underwater, the music similarly becomes drowned out on the soundtrack, underlining its meta-diegetic nature, heard and felt only by Julie in her mind (and of course, by the audience).
Touch and Tactility
Blue is an incredibly tactile film, privileging touch, closeness, experience and intimacy over distance and mere observation. Tactility is “a mode of perception and expression wherein all parts of the body commit themselves to, or are drawn into, a relationship with the world that is at once a mutual and intimate relation of contact.” (Barker 2009, p. 3).
The closeness of the camera to and its particular focus on Julie promotes the audience’s intimacy towards her and enhances their experiencing of her emotions, while the abundance of extreme close-ups of hands and fingers emphasises touch and physicality, tying the physical and emotional worlds together. The scene in which Julie leaves her old home is particularly potent in this regard: Having just left her old home and previous life behind, Julie walks down a country path with the camera sharply focused on her severe, contemplative face. This look dissolves into one of emotional pain as she takes her hand and scrapes it along a harsh stone wall, the camera cutting to follow her hand as it roughly goes over the wall’s abrasive surface, Julie’s emotional pain being transferred into the physical. That physical discomfort is felt by the audience, further emphasising Julie’s pain.
Touch and music are also linked throughout Blue, with written music lying inert on paper bursting to life as Julie traces her finger across it. Camera, soundtrack and touch combine to create the impression that the music is playing in Julie’s head, allowing further access into her inner world. Touch does not always give life to music though, as seen when the jaws of the garbage truck obliterated the sheets of music Julie threw there. As the jaws tear through the paper, the music distorts and fades before disappearing from the soundtrack entirely.
Music and Re-engagement
Eventually Julie is no longer able to deny the impulses that draw music, and by extension humanity, into her. Music and her relationship with it changes. Rather than destroying and denying her musical impulses and inclinations, Julie reconnects with Olivier (Benoît Régent), a composer colleague of her deceased husband and former lover, and the two set about completing the unfinished Concert for a Unified Europe. As the two complete the composition the camera becomes unfocused, and the emphasis is entirely on the music they are creating, “the external is completely overawed by the internal, material gives way to idea, reality is lost so that it is possible for the whole of the being to be immersed into the sound and the imagination” (Paulus & McMaster 1999, p. 81), and the audience is indeed immersed, fully experiencing the therapeutic process of artistic creation. The loving and social nature of humanity, and Julie’s own good nature, shatter her attempts at detachment from it, and “the film ends with a complex montage linking together all of the main characters and ending with Julie now openly crying, finally mourning – that is, recognizing – her loss.” (Woodward 2017, p. 68).
While Blue is felt, sensed and experienced by the audience, the meaning derived from this experience can differ. In Blue, this is keenly characterised through the sugar cube scene, where Julie sits in a café, and there is a close-up of her hand holding a sugar cube just above a cup of coffee. The white sugar cube absorbs the dark brown coffee over a period of 5 seconds until turning completely brown itself, and Julie drops it into the coffee where it disappears with a splash. For Kieślowski, this shot was meant to “show that nothing around [Julie] is of interest to her – neither other people, nor their affairs, nor even this man who loves her and went through a lot to find her. She doesn’t care. Only the sugar cube matters, and she intentionally focuses on it to shut out all the rest.” (Kieślowski 1994). For scholar Bert Olivier however, it is “a powerful visual metaphor for Julie’s inability […] to withdraw or free herself from her surroundings once and for all: even things (the coffee, the sugar cube) conspire to merge with her, to draw her into their embrace.” (2002, p. 123).
I’m more inclined to agree with Olivier’s interpretation, as we see the impossibility of shutting out “all the rest” throughout Blue. Memory, other people, music, something always intrudes. It is fitting that a film where art and humanity are inescapable, always drawn to a person, should attract rich and unintended meaning from its viewers. Just as Julie cannot unplug herself from emotion and society, tethered by memory and music, we cannot plug ourselves from the great empathy machine of cinema.
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Boeing 777 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search "B777" redirects here. For the road in Scotland, see B777 road.Boeing 777 Front quarter view of a Cathay Pacific 777 in flight with flaps and landing gear retrac

rred to as the Triple Seven.[4][5] The 777 was designed to bridge the gap between Boeing's 767 and 747, and to replace older DC-10s or L-1011s. Developed in consultation with eight major airlines, with a first meeting in January 1990, the program was launched on October 14, 1990 with an order from United Airlines. The prototype was rolled out on April 9, 1994, and first flew on June 12, 1994. The 777 entered service with the launch customer, United Airlines, on June 7, 1995. Longer range variants were launched on February 29, 2000 and were first delivered on April 29, 2004.
It can accommodate up to ten abreast seating layout and has a typical 3-class capacity of 301 to 368 passengers, with a range of 5,240 to 8,555 nautical miles (9,700 to 15,840 km). It is recognizable for its large-diameter turbofan engines, six wheels on each main landing gear, fully circular fuselage cross-section,[6] and a blade-shaped tail cone.[7] It has fly-by-wire controls, a first for Boeing. It initially competed with the Airbus A340 and the McDonnell Douglas MD-11, both now out of production, and currently competes with the Airbus A330-300 and newer Airbus A350 XWB.
The original 777 with a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of 545,000–660,000 lb (247–299 t) was produced in two fuselage lengths: the initial -200 was followed by the extended-range 777-200ER in 1997; and the 33.25 ft (10.13 m) longer 777-300 in 1998. Those 777 Classics were powered with 77,200–98,000 lbf (343–436 kN) General Electric GE90, Pratt & Whitney PW4000, or Rolls-Royce Trent 800 engines.[8] The longer range 777-300ER with a MTOW of 766,000–775,000 lb (347–352 t) entered service in 2004, the ultra long-range 777-200LR in 2006, and the 777F freighter in 2009. These long haul variants feature 110,000–115,300 lbf (489–513 kN) GE90 engines and extended raked wingtips. In November 2013, Boeing announced the 777X development with the -8 and -9 variants, scheduled to enter service by 2020. The 777X features composite wings with folding wingtips and General Electric GE9X engines.
The 777 has been ordered and delivered more than any other wide-body airliner; as of August 2019, more than 60 customers had placed orders for 2,049 aircraft of all variants, with 1,609 delivered.[2] The most common and successful variant is the 777-300ER with 844 aircraft ordered and 810 delivered.[2] By March 2018, the 777 had become the most-produced Boeing wide-body jet, surpassing the Boeing 747.[9] As of July 2018, Emirates was the largest operator with 163 aircraft.[10] As of February 2019, the 777 has been involved in 28 aviation accidents and incidents,[11] including seven hull losses (five in-flight and two in ground incidents) resulting in 541 fatalities along with three hijackings.[12][13]
Contents 1 Development 1.1 Background 1.2 Design effort 1.3 Into production and testing 1.4 Entry into service 1.5 Initial derivatives 1.6 Second generation models 1.7 Production developments 1.8 777X 1.9 Updates and improvements 2 Design 2.1 Fly-by-wire 2.2 Airframe and systems 2.3 Interior 3 Variants 3.1 777-200 3.2 777-200ER 3.3 777-200LR 3.4 777-300 3.5 777-300ER 3.6 777 Freighter 3.7 777-300ER Special Freighter (SF) 3.8 777X 3.9 Government and corporate 4 Operators 4.1 Orders and deliveries 5 Aircraft on display 6 Accidents and incidents 7 Specifications 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Footnotes 9.2 Citations 9.3 Bibliography 10 External links Development Background
The Boeing 777-100 trijet concept In the early 1970s, the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar became the first generation of wide-body passenger airliners to enter service.[14] In 1978, Boeing unveiled three new models: the twin-engine Boeing 757 to replace its 727, the twin-engine 767 to challenge the Airbus A300, and a trijet 777 concept to compete with the DC-10 and L-1011.[15][16][17] The mid-size 757 and 767 launched to market success, due in part to 1980s' extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards (ETOPS) regulations governing transoceanic twinjet operations.[18] These regulations allowed twin-engine airliners to make ocean crossings at up to three hours' distance from emergency diversionary airports.[19] Under ETOPS rules, airlines began operating the 767 on long-distance overseas routes that did not require the capacity of larger airliners.[18] The trijet 777 was later dropped, following marketing studies that favored the 757 and 767 variants.[20] Boeing was left with a size and range gap in its product line between the 767-300ER and the 747-400.[21]
By the late 1980s, DC-10 and L-1011 models were approaching retirement age, prompting manufacturers to develop replacement designs.[22] McDonnell Douglas was working on the MD-11, a stretched and upgraded successor of the DC-10,[22] while Airbus was developing its A330 and A340 series.[22] In 1986, Boeing unveiled proposals for an enlarged 767, tentatively named 767-X,[23] to target the replacement market for first-generation wide-bodies such as the DC-10,[19] and to complement existing 767 and 747 models in the company lineup.[24] The initial proposal featured a longer fuselage and larger wings than the existing 767,[23] along with winglets.[25] Later plans expanded the fuselage cross-section but retained the existing 767 flight deck, nose, and other elements.[23]
Airline customers were uninterested in the 767-X proposals, and instead wanted an even wider fuselage cross-section, fully flexible interior configurations, short- to intercontinental-range capability, and an operating cost lower than that of any 767 stretch.[19] Airline planners' requirements for larger aircraft had become increasingly specific, adding to the heightened competition among aircraft manufacturers.[22] By 1988, Boeing realized that the only answer was a new clean-sheet design, which became the 777 twin-jet.[26] The company opted for the twin-engine configuration given past design successes, projected engine developments, and reduced-cost benefits.[27] On December 8, 1989, Boeing began issuing offers to airlines for the 777.[23]
Design effort A flight deck, from behind the two pilots' seats. A center console lies in between the seats, in front is an instrument panel with several displays, and light enters through the forward windows. The two-crew glass cockpit uses fly-by-wire controls Alan Mulally served as the Boeing 777 program's director of engineering, and then was promoted in September 1992 to lead it as vice-president and general manager.[28][29] The design phase for the new twinjet was different from Boeing's previous commercial jetliners. For the first time, eight major airlines – All Nippon Airways, American Airlines, British Airways, Cathay Pacific, Delta Air Lines, Japan Airlines, Qantas, and United Airlines – had a role in the development.[30] This was a departure from industry practice, where manufacturers typically designed aircraft with minimal customer input.[31] The eight airlines that contributed to the design process became known within Boeing as the "Working Together" group.[30] At the first group meeting in January 1990, a 23-page questionnaire was distributed to the airlines, asking what each wanted in the design.[19] By March 1990, Boeing and the airlines had decided upon a basic design configuration: a cabin cross-section close to the 747's, capacity up to 325 passengers, flexible interiors, a glass cockpit, fly-by-wire controls, and 10 percent better seat-mile costs than the A330 and MD-11.[19] Boeing selected its Everett factory in Washington, home of 747 production, as the 777's final assembly site.[32]
On October 14, 1990, United Airlines became the 777's launch customer when it placed an order for 34 Pratt & Whitney-powered aircraft valued at US$11 billion with options on an additional 34.[33][34] The development phase coincided with United's replacement program for its aging DC-10s.[35] United required that the new aircraft be capable of flying three different routes: Chicago to Hawaii, Chicago to Europe, and non-stop from Denver, a hot and high airport, to Hawaii.[35] ETOPS certification was also a priority for United,[36] given the overwater portion of United's Hawaii routes.[33] In January 1993, a team of United developers joined other airline teams and Boeing designers at the Everett factory.[37] The 240 design teams, with up to 40 members each, addressed almost 1,500 design issues with individual aircraft components.[38] The fuselage diameter was increased to suit Cathay Pacific, the baseline model grew longer for All Nippon Airways, and British Airways' input led to added built-in testing and interior flexibility,[19] along with higher operating weight options.[39]
The 777 was the first commercial aircraft designed entirely by computer.[24][33][40] Each design drawing was created on a three-dimensional CAD software system known as CATIA, sourced from Dassault Systemes and IBM.[41] This lets engineers assemble a virtual aircraft, in simulation, to check for interference and verify that the thousands of parts fit properly—thus reducing costly rework.[42] Boeing developed its high-performance visualization system, FlyThru, later called IVT (Integrated Visualization Tool) to support large-scale collaborative engineering design reviews, production illustrations, and other uses of the CAD data outside of engineering.[43] Boeing was initially not convinced of CATIA's abilities and built a physical mock-up of the nose section to verify its results. The test was so successful that additional mock-ups were canceled.[44] The 777 "was completed with such precision that it was the first Boeing jet that didn’t need its kinks worked out on an expensive physical mock-up plane", which contrasted sharply with the development of Boeing's next new airliner, the 787.[45] The program cost was US$5 billion.[46]
Into production and testing The production process included substantial international content, an unprecedented level of global subcontracting for a Boeing jetliner,[47] later exceeded by the 787.[48] International contributors included Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Kawasaki Heavy Industries (fuselage panels),[49] Fuji Heavy Industries, Ltd. (center wing section),[49] Hawker de Havilland (elevators), and Aerospace Technologies of Australia (rudder).[50] An agreement between Boeing and the Japan Aircraft Development Corporation, representing Japanese aerospace contractors, made the latter risk-sharing partners for 20 percent of the entire development program.[47] The initial 777-200 model was launched with propulsion options from three manufacturers, General Electric, Pratt & Whitney, and Rolls-Royce,[51] giving the airlines their choice of engines from competing firms.[52] Each manufacturer agreed to develop an engine in the 77,000 lbf (340 kN) and higher thrust class (a measure of jet engine output) for the world's largest twinjet.[51]
Airliner turbofan engine Pratt & Whitney PW4000 Airliner turbofan engine Rolls-Royce Trent 800 Airliner turbofan engine General Electric GE90-94B with its thrust reverser deployed To accommodate production of its new airliner, Boeing doubled the size of the Everett factory at the cost of nearly US$1.5 billion[33] to provide space for two new assembly lines.[35] New production methodologies were developed, including a turn machine that could rotate fuselage subassemblies 180 degrees, giving workers access to upper body sections.[41] Major assembly of the first aircraft began on January 4, 1993.[53] By the start of production, the program had amassed 118 firm orders, with options for 95 more from 10 airlines.[54] Total investment in the program was estimated at over US$4 billion from Boeing, with an additional US$2 billion from suppliers.[55]
Side view of a twin-engine jet in flight, surrounded by white clouds The 777 made its maiden flight on June 12, 1994. On April 9, 1994, the first 777, number WA001, was rolled out in a series of 15 ceremonies held during the day to accommodate the 100,000 invited guests.[56] The first flight took place on June 12, 1994,[57] under the command of chief test pilot John E. Cashman.[58] This marked the start of an 11-month flight test program that was more extensive than testing for any previous Boeing model.[59] Nine aircraft fitted with General Electric, Pratt & Whitney, and Rolls-Royce engines[57] were flight tested at locations ranging from the desert airfield at Edwards Air Force Base in California[60] to frigid conditions in Alaska, mainly Fairbanks International Airport.[61] To satisfy ETOPS requirements, eight 180-minute single-engine test flights were performed.[62] The first aircraft built was used by Boeing's nondestructive testing campaign from 1994 to 1996, and provided data for the -200ER and -300 programs.[63] At the successful conclusion of flight testing, the 777 was awarded simultaneous airworthiness certification by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) on April 19, 1995.[57]
Entry into service
On May 15, 1995, United Airlines received the first Boeing 777-200 and made the first commercial flight on June 7 Boeing delivered the first 777 to United Airlines on May 15, 1995.[64][65] The FAA awarded 180-minute ETOPS clearance ("ETOPS-180") for the Pratt & Whitney PW4084-engined aircraft on May 30, 1995, making it the first airliner to carry an ETOPS-180 rating at its entry into service.[66] The first commercial flight took place on June 7, 1995, from London Heathrow Airport to Dulles International Airport near Washington, D.C.[67] Longer ETOPS clearance of 207 minutes was approved in October 1996.[68]
On November 12, 1995, Boeing delivered the first model with General Electric GE90-77B engines to British Airways,[69] which entered service five days later.[70] Initial service was affected by gearbox bearing wear issues, which caused British Airways to temporarily withdraw its 777 fleet from transatlantic service in 1997,[70] returning to full service later that year.[60] General Electric subsequently announced engine upgrades.[60]
The first Rolls-Royce Trent 877-powered aircraft was delivered to Thai Airways International on March 31, 1996,[69] completing the introduction of the three powerplants initially developed for the airliner.[71] Each engine-aircraft combination had secured ETOPS-180 certification from the point of entry into service.[72] By June 1997, orders for the 777 numbered 323 from 25 airlines, including satisfied launch customers that had ordered additional aircraft.[57] Operations performance data established the consistent capabilities of the twinjet over long-haul transoceanic routes, leading to additional sales.[73] By 1998, the 777 fleet had approached 900,000 flight hours.[74] Boeing states that the 777 fleet has a dispatch reliability (rate of departure from the gate with no more than 15 minutes delay due to technical issues) above 99 percent.[75][76][77][78]
Initial derivatives
Cathay Pacific introduced the stretched -300 variant on May 27, 1998 After the original model, Boeing developed an increased gross weight variant of the 777-200 with greater range and payload capability.[79] Initially named 777-200IGW,[80] the 777-200ER first flew on October 7, 1996,[81] received FAA and JAA certification on January 17, 1997,[82] and entered service with British Airways on February 9, 1997.[82] Offering greater long-haul performance, the variant became the most widely ordered version of the aircraft through the early 2000s.[79] On April 2, 1997, a Malaysia Airlines -200ER named "Super Ranger" broke the great circle "distance without landing" record for an airliner by flying eastward from Boeing Field, Seattle to Kuala Lumpur, a distance of 10,823 nautical miles (20,044 km; 12,455 mi), in 21 hours and 23 minutes.[74]
Following the introduction of the -200ER, Boeing turned its attention to a stretched version of the airliner. On October 16, 1997, the 777-300 made its first flight.[81] At 242.4 ft (73.9 m) in length, the -300 became the longest airliner yet produced (until the A340-600), and had a 20 percent greater overall capacity than the standard length model.[83] The -300 was awarded type certification simultaneously from the FAA and JAA on May 4, 1998,[84] and entered service with launch customer Cathay Pacific on May 27, 1998.[81][85]
The first generation of Boeing 777 models, the -200, -200ER, and -300 have since been known collectively as Boeing 777 Classics.[8]
Second generation models
Aircraft engine, forward-facing view with a Boeing engineer in front to demonstrate the engine's size. The engine's large circular intake contains a central hub with a swirl mark, surrounded by multiple curved fan blades. The more powerful GE90 engines of later variants has a 128 in (330 cm) diameter fan up from 123 in (310 cm) in earlier variants, and curved blades instead of straight ones From the program's start, Boeing had considered building ultra-long-range variants.[86] Early plans centered on a 777-100X proposal,[87] a shortened variant of the -200 with reduced weight and increased range,[87] similar to the 747SP.[88] However, the -100X would have carried fewer passengers than the -200 while having similar operating costs, leading to a higher cost per seat.[87][88] By the late 1990s, design plans shifted to longer-range versions of existing models.[87]
In March 1997, the Boeing board approved the 777-200X/300X specifications: 298 passengers in three classes over 8,600 nmi (15,900 km) for the 200X and 6,600 nmi (12,200 km) with 355 passengers in a tri-class layout for the 300X, with design freeze planned in May 1998, 200X certification in August 2000, and introduction in September and in January 2001 for the 300X.[89] The 1.37 m (4 ft 6 in) wider wing was to be strengthened and the fuel capacity enlarged, and it was to be powered by simple derivatives with similar fans.[89] GE was proposing a 454 kN (102,000 lbf) GE90-102B, while P&W offered its 436 kN (98,000 lbf) PW4098 and R-R was proposing a 437 kN (98,000 lbf) Trent 8100.[89] Rolls-Royce was also studying a Trent 8102 over 445 kN (100,000 lbf).[90] Boeing was studying a semi-levered, articulated main gear to help the take-off rotation of the proposed -300X, with its higher 324,600 kg (715,600 lb) MTOW.[91] By January 1999, its MTOW grew to 340,500 kg (750,000 lb), and thrust requirements increased to 110,000–114,000 lbf (490–510 kN).[92]
A more powerful engine in the thrust class of 100,000 lbf (440 kN) was required, leading to talks between Boeing and engine manufacturers. General Electric offered to develop the GE90-115B engine,[52] while Rolls-Royce proposed developing the Trent 8104 engine.[93] In 1999, Boeing announced an agreement with General Electric, beating out rival proposals.[52] Under the deal with General Electric, Boeing agreed to only offer GE90 engines on new 777 versions.[52]
On February 29, 2000, Boeing launched its next-generation twinjet program,[94] initially called 777-X,[86] and began issuing offers to airlines.[79] Development was slowed by an industry downturn during the early 2000s.[81] The first model to emerge from the program, the 777-300ER, was launched with an order for ten aircraft from Air France,[95] along with additional commitments.[79] On February 24, 2003, the -300ER made its first flight, and the FAA and EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency, successor to the JAA) certified the model on March 16, 2004.[96] The first delivery to Air France took place on April 29, 2004.[81] The -300ER, which combined the -300's added capacity with the -200ER's range, became the top-selling 777 variant in the late 2000s,[97] benefitting as airlines replaced comparable four-engine models with twinjets for their lower operating costs.[98]
The second long-range model, the 777-200LR, rolled out on February 15, 2005, and completed its first flight on March 8, 2005.[81] The -200LR was certified by both the FAA and EASA on February 2, 2006,[99] and the first delivery to Pakistan International Airlines occurred on February 26, 2006.[100] On November 10, 2005, the first -200LR set a record for the longest non-stop flight of a passenger airliner by flying 11,664 nautical miles (21,602 km) eastward from Hong Kong to London.[101] Lasting 22 hours and 42 minutes, the flight surpassed the -200LR's standard design range and was logged in the Guinness World Records.[102]
The production freighter model, the 777F, rolled out on May 23, 2008.[103] The maiden flight of the 777F, which used the structural design and engine specifications of the -200LR[104] along with fuel tanks derived from the -300ER, occurred on July 14, 2008.[105] FAA and EASA type certification for the freighter was received on February 6, 2009,[106] and the first delivery to launch customer Air France took place on February 19, 2009.[107][108]
Production developments Initially second to the 747 as Boeing's most profitable jetliner,[109] the 777 became the company's most lucrative model in the 2000s.[110] Program sales accounted for an estimated US$400 million of Boeing's pretax earnings in 2000, US$50 million more than the 747.[109] By 2004, the airliner accounted for the bulk of wide-body revenues for the Boeing Commercial Airplanes division.[111] In 2007, orders for second-generation 777 models approached 350 aircraft,[112] and in November of that year, Boeing announced that all production slots were sold out to 2012.[98] The program backlog of 356 orders was valued at US$95 billion at list prices in 2008.[113]
In 2010, Boeing announced plans to increase production from 5 aircraft per month to 7 aircraft per month by mid-2011, and 8.3 per month by early 2013.[114] Complete assembly of each 777-300ER requires 49 days.[115] The smaller Boeing 787 Dreamliner, the first stage of a replacement aircraft initiative called the Boeing Yellowstone Project,[116] entered service in 2011. Reportedly, the 777 could eventually be replaced by a new aircraft family, Yellowstone 3, which would draw upon technologies from the 787.[112] In November 2011, assembly began on the 1,000th 777, a -300ER model for Emirates,[115] which was rolled out in March 2012.[117]
By the late 2000s, the 777 was facing increased potential competition from Airbus' planned A350 XWB and internally from proposed 787 variants,[112] both airliners that offer fuel efficiency improvements. As a consequence, the 777-300ER received an engine and aerodynamics improvement package for reduced drag and weight.[118] In 2010, the variant further received a 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) maximum zero-fuel weight increase, equivalent to a higher payload of 20–25 passengers; its GE90-115B1 engines received a 1–2.5 percent thrust enhancement for increased takeoff weights at higher-altitude airports.[118] More changes were targeted for late 2012, including possible extension of the wingspan,[118] along with other major changes, including a composite wing, new powerplant, and different fuselage lengths.[118][119][120] Emirates was reportedly working closely with Boeing on the project, in conjunction with being a potential launch customer for new 777 versions.[121] Among customers for the aircraft during this period, China Airlines ordered ten 777-300ER aircraft to replace 747-400s on long-haul transpacific routes (with the first of those aircraft entering service in 2015), noting that the 777-300ER's per seat cost is about 20% lower than the 747's costs (varying due to fuel prices).[122]
777X
The improved and updated Boeing 777-9X was rolled out on March 13, 2019 See also: Boeing 777X In November 2013, with orders and commitments totaling 259 aircraft from Lufthansa, Emirates, Qatar Airways, and Etihad Airways, Boeing formally launched the 777X program, the third generation of the 777 (not to be confused with the 777-X variants, which were the second generation of the aircraft), with two models: the 777-8 and 777-9.[123] The 777-9 was to be a further stretched variant with a capacity of over 400 passengers and a range of over 15,200 km (8,200 nmi), whereas the 777-8 was slated to seat approximately 350 passengers and have a range of over 17,200 km (9,300 nmi).[123] Both models were to be equipped with new generation GE9X engines and feature new composite wings with folding wingtips. The first member of the 777X family, the 777-9, was set to enter service by 2020. By the mid-2010s, the 777 had become prevalent on the longest flights internationally and had become the most widely used airliner for transpacific routes, with variants of the type operating over half of all scheduled flights and with the majority of transpacific carriers.[124][125]
By April 2014, with cumulative sales surpassing those of the 747, the 777 became the best-selling wide-body airliner; at existing production rates, the aircraft was on track to become the most-delivered wide-body airliner by mid-2016.[126] By February 2015, the backlog of undelivered 777s totaled 278 aircraft, representing just under three years of current production at 8.3 aircraft per month,[127] causing Boeing to ponder the 2018-2020 time frame. In January 2016, Boeing confirmed plans to reduce the production rate of the 777 family from 8.3 per month to 7 per month in 2017 to help close the production gap between the 777 and 777X created by a lack of new orders.[128] In 2018, assembling test 777-9 aircraft was expected to lower output to an effective rate of 5.5 per month.[129] Boeing was expected to drop 777 production to five per month in August 2017.[130]
Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, demand for new jets was reduced in 2020 and Boeing cut its monthly production from five to two 777s.[131]
Updates and improvements
Air France received the first 777-300ER on April 29, 2004 In tandem with the development of the third generation Boeing 777X, Boeing worked with General Electric to offer a 2% improvement in fuel efficiency to in-production 777-300ER aircraft. General Electric improved the fan module and the high-pressure compressor stage-1 blisk in the GE-90-115 turbofan, as well as reduced clearances between the tips of the turbine blades and the shroud during cruise. These improvements, of which the latter is the most important and was derived from work to develop the 787, were stated by GE to lower fuel burn by 0.5%. Boeing's wing modifications were intended to deliver the remainder. Boeing stated that every 1% improvement in the 777-300ER's fuel burn translates into being able to fly the aircraft another 75 nmi (139 km; 86 mi) on the same load of fuel, or add ten passengers or 2,400 lb (1,100 kg) of cargo to a "load limited" flight.[132]
In March 2015, additional details of the improvement package were unveiled. The 777-300ER was to shed 1,800 lb (820 kg) by replacing the fuselage crown with tie rods and composite integration panels, similar to those used on the 787. The new flight control software was to eliminate the need for the tail skid by keeping the tail off the runway surface regardless of the extent to which pilots command the elevators. Boeing was also redesigning the inboard flap fairings to reduce drag by reducing pressure on the underside of the wing. The outboard raked wingtip was to have a divergent trailing edge, described as a "poor man's airfoil" by Boeing; this was originally developed for the McDonnell Douglas MD-12 project. Another change involved elevator trim bias. These changes were to increase fuel efficiency and allow airlines to add 14 additional seats to the airplane, increasing per seat fuel efficiency by 5%.[133]
Mindful of the long time required to bring the 777X to the market, Boeing continued to develop improvement packages which improve fuel efficiency, as well as lower prices for the existing product. In January 2015, United Airlines ordered ten 777-300ERs, normally costing around US$150 million each but paid around US$130 million, a discount to bridge the production gap to the 777X.[134] The roll-out of the prototype 777X, a 777-9 model, occurred on March 13, 2019.[135]
In 2019, the -200ER unit cost was US$ 306.6 million, the -200LR: US$ 346.9 million, the -300ER: US$ 375.5 million and the 777F US$ 352.3 million[136] The -200ER is the only Classic variant listed.
Design Aircraft belly section. Close view of engines, extended landing gear and angled control flaps. The engines and extended slats, flaps, and landing gear of an American Airlines Boeing 777-200ER.
Front view of an Emirates 777-300ER, showing fuselage profile, wing dihedral, and GE90 engines Boeing introduced a number of advanced technologies with the 777 design, including fully digital fly-by-wire controls,[137] fully software-configurable avionics, Honeywell LCD glass cockpit flight displays,[138] and the first use of a fiber optic avionics network on a commercial airliner.[139] Boeing made use of work done on the cancelled Boeing 7J7 regional jet,[140] which utilized similar versions of the chosen technologies.[140] In 2003, Boeing began offering the option of cockpit electronic flight bag computer displays.[141] In 2013, Boeing announced that the upgraded 777X models would incorporate airframe, systems, and interior technologies from the 787.[142]
Fly-by-wire
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Is there anything like Symbolic Logic by Lewis Carroll that tries to build knowledge/info from assumptions?

This is what I'm talking about.
Reading Symbolic Logic by Lewis Carroll piqued my interest in wanting to know if there's similar building ventures or projects occurring like what's present in the titled book mentioned in the post. I'm new to philosophy and having just read the FAQ and done a couple searches I closest thing I could find similar to what I was is The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy page on Foundationalism and the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy page titled Foundationalist Theories of Epistemic Justification. That said I guess in addition to the question in the titled of the post, the other questions is:
  1. Is there any rudimentary material geared towards beginners regarding the topics and issues of foundationalism? — The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy's page on the topic is much more digestible to me personally than the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's page on foundationalism, but its still archaic; and I know right now that's mainly because I'm not familiar with the language and ideas being used. It reminds when I was hit with that damn coding reference. I learned it but you see what I mean? It's just here in this field of human interest, when I'm reading through the encyclopedia pages aforementioned I can clearly sense the (___) gaps of my understanding pertaining to this topic and that's fine to me, as long as I can get some directions on where I can look to clarify my ignorance. (Still going through the bibliography of the link pages)
  2. What are some philosophical projects that have attempted a foundationalist approaches and how have they faired? — Contemporary and older projects appreciated! I'm doing a second reading of those two encyclopedia pages I linked before because little of it made sense my first go around, but from my first reading Descartes seems like the most prominent figure with their Meditations stuff (I glanced at it, it reportedly help inspire The Matrix so that's cool.)
​
Edit: Damn you markdown mode. Damn you.
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Black Mountain by Laird Barron

4.25/5
I wanted to spotlight this book because I feel a lot of people are sleeping on Laird's crime stuff. This is for those who love the crime/horror genre blend and it's super lean and mean without forging knife like prose. There's plenty to love for those who enjoy John Connolly, Donald Ray Pollock, Ed Brubaker, Brian Evenson, Fincher etc. this is for you.
This was such a good time! I'm no stranger to Laird Barron at this point; I'm closing in on completing his full bibliography and this is up there with his best to be sure.
What I enjoyed most about this entry (the further adventures of a post-nib hit an turned PI) is that we could move directly into the world the characters inhabit and the advancement of the plot. In the previous book, which was great don't get me wrong, Barron had to set the table and it followed standard fare as far as crime fiction goes: a character with a dark past, smoking/drinking/guns, Ne'er-do-wells, sidekicks, the femme fatale, etc. It made for a fast-paced hard boiled tale.
In this novel, Barron incorporates all of these aspects but marinates it with his signature weird horror and punched up prose. Coleridge reminds me of characters spewed out from my favorite crime writeartist team, Ed Brubaker and Sean Phillips (high praise), and it is every bit as good.
I don't want to get into the specifics of the plot since this is a continuation of the previous books but Coleridge is charged with investigating gruesome murders performed on mob hitman, possibly executed by an ageless entity of some sort....or maybe it's just psychopath with myth and legend surrounding his deeds due to his brutality and efficiency. I'll let you read to find out.
There's humor, romance, violence, action, and horror all mixed for a mesmerizing bit of entertainment; this series has been elevated and I. AM. HERE. FOR. IT. I can't wait for my next Coleridge fix.
P.S. At many points of this book, Laird ties in his Old Leech mythos.
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Christian Patriotism

PREFACE

Lately, I have encountered a disturbing trend in both the public circle and the Church. The Church is abandoning patriotism, national pride, and basic principles of self-preservation. The Christians in mind make cases for these beliefs by taking parts of Scripture out of context – grossly out of context. I wrote a paper back in college for an ethics course that handled why the aforementioned behaviors are un-Christian and unhealthy. Today, I have tailored that paper to handle the specific topics at hand.
INTRODUCTION
Justifiable war: so many people are plagued by the issue. You need only look at the world to understand that this is an issue. In the roughly 3,400 years of secularly recorded existence, mankind has only seen about 250 non-consecutive years of peace.[i] Of those 3,400 years, 2,000 of them have been under Christian[ii] influence. In the modern world it seems as though there is no end to the amount of conflicts. In the Middle East, the Islamic State radical, militant Islamic group daily threatens the livelihood of Kurds, Yazidis, non-extremist Sunni Muslims,[iii] and non-Muslims altogether.[iv] Civil War rages on in numerous countries around the world; just do a quick online search to know this. The fact that war is a reality for everyone eventually comes to mind of the Christian, and he asks, “What should I do?” What should a Christian do in this fallen world that thrives on warfare? In what ways can a Christian participate in these wars, if at all, and why or why not? Is the Christian relegated to the sidelines – to borrow the colloquialism? Or is the Christian allowed to join the military and engage in combat? The Bible shows that the conscience should be the guide for the Christian. Some Christians believe that members of their faith should never engage in warfare. Other Christians believe that it is one of the highest callings for a Christian to join the Armed Forces. Still others prefer to have no opinion for other Christians and hold to whatever they believe as their own opinion. With Christians taking up 31.5% of the world’s population[v] a Christian cannot afford to keep his opinion to himself on the issue. A Christian must end up an open Patriot-Pacifist or a Patriot-Warrior; no middle ground exists.

PATRIOT-PACIFIST

What is, or rather, who is a Patriot-Pacifist? One might say, “Patriotism and pacifism are directly antithetical? How could one person be both?” First of all, this is a very narrow-minded view of both patriotism and pacifism. A patriot is any person that is willing to sacrifice in order to protect his country.[vi] Who is a pacifist? A pacifist is a person who believes that man should never enter into armed conflict.[vii] How do these two combine into a single person then? Because the majority of pacifists are only opposed to violence and armed conflict, they often find themselves in the voting booth or in public office fighting to protect their beloved nation; this makes them patriots as well.
How does the Christian end up in this category then? Most Christians who end up as pacifists base their beliefs on God’s Love. 2 Peter 3:9 is often one of the verses that motivates the conscience of the pacifist Christian. 2 Peter 3:9 tells the Christian that God does not desire to see any person go to Hell. The pacifist Christian believes if God does not desire to see the unsaved go to Hell, then the Christian should in no way cause someone to go to Hell (i.e. shooting a Muslim in a war and killing them).[viii] Another passage that many Christians will cite is Christ’s attitude on during the betrayal of Judas. Matthew 26:52-53 records Jesus’ words to Peter after he had just cut off the priest’s servant’s ear. “52 Then said Jesus unto him, Put up again thy sword into his place: for all they that take the sword shall perish with the sword. 53 Thinkest thou that I cannot now pray to my Father, and he shall presently give me more than twelve legions of angels?” (AV) Christians then will combine the principle of this verse with the numerous mandates in the Epistles to imitate Christ.[ix] Most common though is the Christian assent to God’s Law “Thou shalt not kill.” 1 John 3:15 for many Christians seems to indicate that murdering a person is assent to the lack of salvation.[x] The most famous pacifist Christians are Quakers. While not all Quakers will claim pacifism, the desire for peace often guides the Quakers to adopt forms of pacifism.[xi]

PATRIOT-WARRIOR

Many Christians would claim quickly to support armed conflict if the conflict had a just cause. Due to limited space, this paper is not the place to define or argue for or against justified war. This paper assumes that the war in question is justifiable and now the Christian must decide whether or not he will join the fight. The Patriot-Warrior Christian will see joining the conflict and defending his nation in arms as his duty. Many of these Christians God has gifted in warfare. These Christians will look at the same passages as the pacifists and come to different conclusions. The warriors will look at 1 John 3, 2 Peter 3, and the numerous commands to follow Christ and associate them with spiritual persecution, not physical oppression. God never once condemned a soldier for fighting a war that sought to defend biblical principles.[xii] God has supported war in the past. Even Christ engaged in physical conflict to cleanse the Temple (John 2:12-22). Numerous examples of God for a time condoning violence appear in Scripture. God only condemns murder, which is different than war. Many Christians today would cite the reduction of the Islamic State (ISIS) to a mere shadow of its former existence as evidence that engaging in armed conflict is justifiable; otherwise, God would not have allowed the United States to crush ISIS.
Not all warriors are physical warriors. A great many Christians are warriors at heart. Not all are able to join an armed conflict. Being a warrior is a state of heart, not a state of physicality. For the sake of this paper though, the definition of a warrior is limited to those who support armed conflict.

NO MIDDLE GROUND

A Christian will either be a pacifist or a warrior. While many Christians would fight for their own lives, or the lives of their families, even if that fight would cost the opponent his life, there are still others who believe that a Christian should never raise his hand against another man. A Christian will either fight or die. No middle ground is present. In the life-or-death, non-religious persecution situation, a Christian will either be a pacifist or a warrior.

CASE FOR THE PATRIOT

For whom should the Christian fight though? Allow a case to be made for national patriotism. Daniel 2:21 states, “[God] removeth kings, and setteth up kings,” making a case for the belief that God is in control of the flux of wars and conflicts. Romans 13 calls every Christian to support the laws of the land that do not directly contradict Scripture. If the law of the land needs defending, it is the duty of the Christian to defend those laws: regardless of whether or not he is a pacifist or a warrior. If the law of the land is unbiblical or oppressive, it is the duty of the Christian to accept the punishment for breaking those laws obediently, though not necessarily to confess. In every way he can without violating Scripture, the Christian must support his country: this is Christian patriotism.
Many Christians will interject at this point and claim that our citizenship is in Heaven therefore we cannot be loyal to any nation here on earth. I cannot begin to tell you how out of context those Christians have taken that verse (Philippians 3.20) out of context. Paul was writing to the Philippians. In that particular Congregation some of the Christians had a superiority complex because of their ethnicity and citizenship. Rome did not grant citizenship at birth to everyone that existed under its control. Citizenship was a privilege, gave privilege, and came with responsibility. Philippi was a unique location because natural residents were automatically Roman citizens. The Christians that were Roman citizens tried to hold themselves in esteem in the Church because of their citizenry. To put it in modern terms, if you are not a Southern Baptist, born in the USA to a white family with a generic American name (Smith or Jones for example) you are not only a lesser human being, you can never be as good of a Christian as I am. Paul wanted to take those Philippians off their high horse and remind them that we are all depraved in the eyes of God and then your ethnicity and nationality cannot make you a better servant of the Lord.[xiii]

SUMMARY

All Christians will find themselves either as Pacifists or as Warriors; but they should find themselves as Patriots. Christians make up 31.5% of the world’s population, they must make the decision to fight on the battlefield or in the ballot box. 92% of world history revolves around conflict. The only questions a Christian must ask before entering a conflict are, “Is this conflict justified? and, “How will I fight, on my knees or with my hands?”
“1 Blessed be the LORD my strength, which teacheth my hands to war, and my fingers to fight:” (Psalm 144:1, AV)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ali, Alisha, Emily McFarlane, Kristin Lees, and Neha Srivastava. 'WHO IS A PATRIOT? PSYCHOLOGICAL RECOLONIZATION AND THE PROLIFERATION OF US NATIONALISM.'. Race, Gender \& Class 20, no. 1-2 (2013): 351--360.
al-Obaidi, Hassan. 'Moderate Sunni Clerics Suffer ISIL Crimes: Iraqi Scholars'. Mawtani. Last modified 2014. Accessed October 29, 2014. http://mawtani.al-shorfa.com/en\_GB/articles/iii/features/2014/09/16/feature-01.
Catechism of the Catholic Church,. Citta del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1993.
Fiala, Andrew. 'Pacifism'. Plato.Stanford.Edu. Last modified 2006. Accessed October 29, 2014. http://plato.stanford.edntries/pacifism/.
Hedges, Chris. What Every Person Should Know About War. New York: Free Press, 2003.
Melick, Richard R. Philippians, Colossians, Philemon. Vol. 32. The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1991.
Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project,. 'Global Religious Diversity'. Last modified 2014. Accessed October 29, 2014. http://www.pewforum.org/2014/04/04/global-religious-diversity/.
Quaker.org.uk,. 'Quakers And Peace | Quakers In Britain'. Last modified 2014. Accessed October 30, 2014. http://www.quaker.org.uk/quakers-and-peace-0.
Shaw, R. Paul, and Yuwa Wong. Genetic Seeds Of Warfare. Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989.
Slick, Matthew. 'Should A Christian Go To War?'. Christian Apologetics And Research Ministry. Last modified 2014. Accessed October 30, 2014. http://carm.org/should-christian-go-war.
Wenger, J. 'Pacifism And Biblical Nonresistance'. Bibleviews.Com. Last modified 1967. Accessed October 30, 2014. http://www.bibleviews.com/Biblicalnonresist.html#Whatdoes.
[i]. R. Paul Shaw and Yuwa Wong, Genetic Seeds of Warfare (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989). 3.
[ii]. The reader should note that the author uses the term “Christian” to refer to any person who identifies themselves with a Christian religious affiliation.
[iii]. Hassan al-Obaidi, 'Moderate Sunni Clerics Suffer ISIL Crimes: Iraqi Scholars', Mawtani, last modified 2014, accessed October 29, 2014, http://mawtani.al-shorfa.com/en\_GB/articles/iii/features/2014/09/16/feature-01.
[iv]. This portion is slightly dated. ISIS has been reduced to a mere shadow of its existence. Later we will discuss how it came to be that way.
[v]. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project, 'Global Religious Diversity', last modified 2014, accessed October 29, 2014, http://www.pewforum.org/2014/04/04/global-religious-diversity/.
[vi]. Alisha Ali et al., 'WHO IS A PATRIOT? PSYCHOLOGICAL RECOLONIZATION AND THE PROLIFERATION OF US NATIONALISM.', Race, Gender \& Class 20, no. 1-2 (2013): 351-360. Please, tell me how this is unbiblical.
[vii]. Andrew Fiala, 'Pacifism', Plato.Stanford.Edu, last modified 2014, accessed October 29, 2014, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pacifism/.
[viii]. J. Wenger, 'Pacifism And Biblical Nonresistance', Bibleviews.Com, last modified 1967, accessed October 30, 2014, http://www.bibleviews.com/Biblicalnonresist.html#Whatdoes.
[ix]. Ibid.
[x]. Catechism of the Catholic Church (Citta del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1993).
[xi]. Quaker.org.uk, 'Quakers and Peace | Quakers in Britain', last modified 2014, accessed October 30, 2014, http://www.quaker.org.uk/quakers-and-peace-0.
[xii]. Matthew Slick, 'Should A Christian Go To War?', Christian Apologetics And Research Ministry, last modified 2014, accessed October 30, 2014, http://carm.org/should-christian-go-war.
[xiii] The entire book of Philippians is a comparison of the physical to the heavenly. The Philippians were too earthly minded. Simple as that (NAC: Philippians, Colossians, Philemon). Sadly, many Christians conflate nationalism and patriotism. Nationalism is “my country is better than yours”. Patriotism is supporting your country. Statism is “my country and government are the best in the world and I will follow them blindly.”
submitted by timenowisimportant to GospelPolitics [link] [comments]

combating plagiarism through NCT lyrics: the prequel

hi, yes, it's me again, your questionably-friendly neighbourhood shitposter. in honour of being crowned the winner of "weirdest daily acts" and "most sleep deprived" in u/WhiplashForSisters's rendition of Mark Awards as well as being inspired by this wonderful comment, I decided that I would propose a brilliant idea for yet another series of mine.
you see, some of you might know that I have the tendency to type whatever I hear into all of my articles, papers, assignments, you name it. as an example, I typed this out as a form of satire:
"'In a 2016 study conducted by a team of sociology researchers, there was a 69% increase in what was described as 'clown energy' after participants were subjected to specific forms of audio and visual stimulation. Similarly, an academic journal emphasized the impact of "gO gO GO GO 生命那么厉害 wHOA whoA whOa wHOA" (Dong Sicheng, 2019).'
all I need is an entry in my bibliography to officially submit the lyrics of "Moonwalk" to my professor, in all of its APA7 glory. heck it, here goes nothing:
'Dong, S. (2019). Take Over the Moon. Moonwalk, 1(1), 1-1. Retrieved 2021, from https://youtu.be/UsaGgEjqNoE'"
no, I wasn't going to post about this. I did not intend for the above to spiral into whatever tomfoolery you're about to witness, but it happened, my brain conjured up another incredibly curséd but somewhat ingenious idea:
I'll just type complete and utter nonsense in academic vocabulary, label it as a research paper, bibliography and all, and not so subtly cite NCT MVs and NCT MVs only. one paper for each subunit: WayV, NCT 127, NCT Dream, and NCT U. so now, whoever decides to plagiarize directly from the web will click on the link (still not sure where and how I would post them but I'll figure something out), think they have a free pass to an assignment, and either 1) not look through it thoroughly and actually submit the document or 2) check the bibliography just to be redirected to "I liKe shiNiNg yOU bE lyINg, I bE gRinDing, yOU wASTe tiME" and "I can hear it cALLIN~ loVin tHe wAy yOU wAnNA tALk, tOUCH ME TEASE ME FEEL ME UP"
you heard that right, even though I'm buried in a pile of work and sleep-deprivation, I still manage to dig another hole for myself. but this is merely an idea, a spark of inspiration, a prequel --- an entire new realm of potential for intellectual clownery. if you also happen to be oddly efficient in writing academic nonsense that sounds convincing enough to obtain a passing score (which, let's be honest, that's how we all got through any university-level humanities course), feel free to join me in this journey. in what way can we accomplish this feat? to which extent can we take it? where the heck and how the heck are these research papers going to be discovered? comment your ideas and thoughts, and let's brainstorm. together.
wow that was unnecessarily dramatic, I need to tone it down before it's too late
EDIT: okay uh, upon further research, I think I'm actually going somewhere with this. like, with MIT's "fake research paper generator" , some of the papers ended up being accepted by multiple journals. there's literal controversies about journals accepting hoax culture studies papers as legitimate, I'm whEEZING- and with machine learning, nonsensical essays and academic articles can be generated in minutes. replace the citations, graphs, and bibliographies, and boom, there we go. now I just need an outlet to utilize this kind of power. still not sure how to use SEO to my advantage here. where would people even find these papers? how? why?
submitted by faiththebyelingual to memeculturetechnology [link] [comments]

Finally found an alternative to Diigo: Weava rocks!

Hello all,
I have been looking for an alternative to "Diigo" for a long time now. With Diigo I can highlight web pages and also PDFs in different colors, add tags to the individual highlights or websites and then conveniently extract the highlights to a summary. But since Diigo seems to be getting on in years and I don't even know if the software is currently still being developed (the last blog entry is from 2018), I've been looking around for an alternative for quite some time and finally have found one:
The solution for me is called "Weava".
I am thrilled and can recommend Weava (even in its free version)! :) Why am I posting this now and sounding like a total fanboy? =D I was really frustrated for a long time and switched between Diigo and OneNote - they are both great softwares, but for me Weava is really ahead at the moment because I don't know of any other softwares that address this niche.
Let me know if you guys are already using Weava or if there are any alternatives that I don't know about yet. I for one will most likely stay loyal to Weava for the next few years. :)
submitted by don-peak to software [link] [comments]

Finally found an alternative to Diigo boosting my academic productivity: Weava!

Hello all,
I have been looking for an alternative to "Diigo" for a long time now. With Diigo I can highlight web pages and also PDFs in different colors, add tags to the individual highlights or websites and then conveniently extract the highlights to a summary. But since Diigo seems to be getting on in years and I don't even know if the software is currently still being developed (the last blog entry is from 2018), I've been looking around for an alternative for quite some time and finally have found one:
The solution for me is called "Weava".
I am thrilled and can recommend Weava (even in its free version)! :) Why am I posting this now and sounding like a total fanboy? =D I was really frustrated for a long time and switched between Diigo and OneNote - they are both great softwares, but for me Weava is really ahead at the moment because I don't know of any other softwares that address this niche.
Let me know if you guys are already using Weava or if there are any alternatives that I don't know about yet. I for one will most likely stay loyal to Weava for the next few years. :)
submitted by don-peak to APResearch [link] [comments]

Finally found an alternative to Diigo boosting my academic productivity: Weava!

Hello all,
I have been looking for an alternative to "Diigo" for a long time now. With Diigo I can highlight web pages and also PDFs in different colors, add tags to the individual highlights or websites and then conveniently extract the highlights to a summary. But since Diigo seems to be getting on in years and I don't even know if the software is currently still being developed (the last blog entry is from 2018), I've been looking around for an alternative for quite some time and finally have found one:
The solution for me is called "Weava".
I am thrilled and can recommend Weava (even in its free version)! :) Why am I posting this now and sounding like a total fanboy? =D I was really frustrated for a long time and switched between Diigo and OneNote - they are both great softwares, but for me Weava is really ahead at the moment because I don't know of any other softwares that address this niche.
Let me know if you guys are already using Weava or if there are any alternatives that I don't know about yet. I for one will most likely stay loyal to Weava for the next few years. :)
submitted by don-peak to academia [link] [comments]

Tartaria: The Supposed Mega-Empire of Inner Eurasia

Introduction

For those not in the know, the Tartaria conspiracy theory is one of the most bizarre pieces of pseudo history out there. Its core notion is that the region known as ‘Tartaria’ or ‘Grand Tartary’ in Early Modern European maps was not simply a vague geographical designate, but in fact a vast, centralised empire. Said empire emerged… at some point, and it disappeared… at some point, but for… some reason, its existence has been covered up to suit… some narrative or another. As you can tell, there’s a lot of diverse ideas here, and the fact that there hasn’t been the equivalent of a Christological schism every time a controversial thread goes up is really quite impressive. While this post will primarily address one particular piece of writing that is at the core of Tartaria conspiracy theorising, I’ll include a few tidbits to show you just how much madness its adherents have come up with. But first, some background.

State of Play, and why I’m doing this

The Tartaria theory has a small but active following on subreddits such as Tartaria, tartarianarchitecture, and CulturalLayer, which as of writing have around 5,300, 2,400 and 23,000 subscribers, respectively, but it’s clear from the 8 questions on the topic asked at AskHistorians since January 2019 and this debunk request from June that it’s a theory that has somewhat broad appeal and can reach beyond its core niche. This is unsurprising given how little education most people in the West receive about basically anything east of Greece: simply put, the reality of Eurasian history is just not something most of us are taught. And if we don’t know the reality of Eurasian history to begin with, or if we do then it's all in bits and pieces where we might not even know a basic set of dates and names, then what seems to be a pretty developed narrative about a lost empire actually turns out rather plausible.
Unfortunately, many debunks of the Tartaria narrative come from people pushing competing conspiracy theories, like this guy claiming that there’s a global Jewish Phoenecian conspiracy and that Tartaria is simply rehashing the notion that Khazars were Jews in order to distract from the real Phoenecian threat at the heart of global society or some nonsense like that. (I don’t really care, I died of laughter after page 3.) Now, there are those coming from serious perspectives, but they focus largely on the problems with Tartaria as a concept rather than addressing the more specific claims being made. This is of course valuable in its own right (shoutout to Kochevnik81 for their responses to the AskHistorians threads), but we can go deeper by really striking at the roots of this ‘theory’ – what is the ‘evidence’ they’re presenting? But to do that, we need to find out what the origins of the ‘theory' are, and thus what its linchpins are. Incidentally, it is because of some recent events regarding those origins that I’ve been finally prompted to write this post.

Where does it come from?

My attempts to find the exact origins of the Tartaria conspiracy have been not entirely fruitful, as the connections I’ve found have been relatively circumstantial at best. But as far as I can tell, it at least partially originates with that Russian pseudohistorian we all know and love, Anatoly Fomenko. Fomenko is perhaps best known in the English-speaking world for his 7-volume ‘epic’ from 2002, History: Fiction or Science?, but in fact he’s been pushing a complete ‘New Chronology’ since the publication of Novaia khronologia in Russian in 1995. While the New Chronology is best known for its attempt to explain away most of the Middle Ages as a hoax created by the Papacy on the basis of bad astronomy, it also asserts a number of things about Russian history from the Kievan Rus’ to the Romanovs. Key to the Tartaria theory is its claim that there was a vast Slavo-Turkic ‘Russian Horde’ based out of ‘Tartaria’ which dominated Eurasia until the last ‘Horde’ ruler, Boris Godunov, was overthrown by the European Mikhail Romanov. This, of course, is a clear attempt at countering the notion of a ‘Tatar Yoke’ over Russia, as you can’t have a ‘Tatar Yoke’ if the Tatars were Russians all along. Much as I’d like to explain that in more detail here, I don’t have to: in 2004, Konstantin Sheiko at the University of Wollongong wrote an entire PhD thesis looking at the claims of Fomenko’s New Chronology and contextualising them within currents of Russian nationalism, which can be accessed online.
But I personally suspect that if there are Fomenko connections as far as Tartaria specifically is concerned, they are limited. For one, at one stage users on the Tartaria subreddit seemed unfamiliar with Fomenko, and there are those arguing that Fomenko had ‘rewritten’ Tartarian history to be pro-Russian. This is why I said that the evidence was circumstantial. The only other link to Fomenko is indirect: the CulturalLayer sidebar lists the ‘New Chronology Resource Collection’ and the audiobook of History: Fiction or Science? under ‘Essential Resources’, and Tartaria in its ‘Related Subs’.
As far as I can tell, the ultimate origin of its developed form on the Anglophone web traces back to this post on the StolenHistory forums, posted on 17 April 2018. This makes some chronological sense: only one top-level post on CulturalLayer that mentions Tartaria predates this. Moreover, KorbenDallas, the OP of the thread, was also the forum’s chief admin, and given that StolenHistory is still (as of writing) the top resource on CulturalLayer’s sidebar, that suggests significant influence. However, using the search function on camas.github.io, it was mentioned in comments at least 9 times before then, with the first mention, on 10 January 2018, mentioning that the ‘theory’ had been doing the rounds on the Russian web for at least 5 years. Nevertheless, as the detail in these early comments is sparse and generally refers only to speculation about maps, it is probably fair to say that the first in-depth English-language formulation of the Tartaria ‘theory’ was thus the April 2018 forum post. Funnily enough, it is not cited often on Tartaria, but that subreddit was created on 27 December, long after discussion had been taking place on places like CulturalLayer, and combined with the ‘mudflood’ ‘theory’ and the notion of giant humans, which are not significant features of the StolenHistory thread. This more convoluted and multifaceted version of the Tartaria theory doesn’t really have a single-document articulation, hence me not covering it here.
It is this StolenHistory thread which I will be looking at here today. Not just because it seems to be at the heart of it all, but also because it got shut down around 36 hours ago as of writing this post, based on the timestamps of panicked ‘what happened to StolenHistory’ posts on CulturalLayer and Tartaria. So what better occasion to go back to the Wayback Machine’s version, seeing as it’s now quite literally impossible to brigade the source? Now as I’ve said, this is not the most batshit insane it gets for the Tartaria crowd, in fact it’s incredibly tame. But by the end of it, I bet you’ll be thinking ‘if this is mild, how much more worse is the modern stuff!?’ And the best part is, I can debunk most of it without recourse to any other sources at all, because so much of it involves them posting sources out of context or expecting them to be read tendentiously.
But that’s enough background. Let us begin.

Part 1: The Existence

Exhibit 1: The Encylcopædia Britannica, 1771

”Tartary, a vast country in the northern parts of Asia, bounded by Siberia on the north and west: this is called Great Tartary. The Tartars who lie south of Muscovy and Siberia, are those of Astracan, Circassia, and Dagistan, situated north-west of the Caspian-sea; the Calmuc Tartars, who lie between Siberia and the Caspian-sea; the Usbec Tartars and Moguls, who lie north of Persia and India; and lastly, those of Tibet, who lie north-west of China.” - Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. III, Edinburgh, 1771, p. 887.
Starting a post about the ‘hidden’ history of Central Asia with an encyclopædia entry from Scotland is really getting off to a good start, isn’t it? Anyone with a sense of basic geography can tell you that Tibet lies due west of China, not northwest. But more importantly, this shows you how single-minded the Tartaria advocates are and how tendentiously they read things. ‘Country’ need not actually refer to a state entity, it can just be a geographical space, especially in more archaic contexts such as this. Moreover, the ethnographic division of the ‘Tartars’ into Astrakhanis, Circassians, Dagestanis, Kalmuks, Uzbeks, and, for whatever reason, Tibetans, pretty clearly goes against the notion of a unified Tartary.
Now compare to the description given by Wikipedia, ”Tartary (Latin: Tartaria) or Great Tartary (Latin: Tartaria Magna) was a name used from the Middle Ages until the twentieth century to designate the great tract of northern and central Asia stretching from the Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, settled mostly by Turko-Mongol peoples after the Mongol invasion and the subsequent Turkic migrations.”
Obviously, Wikipedia is not a good source for… anything, really, but the fact that they’re giving a 349-year-old encyclopaedia primacy over the summary sentence of a wiki article is demonstrative of how much dishonesty is behind this. And it only gets worse from here.

Exhibit 2: Hermann Moll’s A System of Geography, 1701

THE Country of Tartary, call'd Great Tartary, to distinguish it from the Lesser, in Europe, has for its Boundaries, on the West, the Caspian Sea, and Moscovitick Tartary; on the North, the Scythian, or Tartarian Sea; on the East, the Sea of the Kalmachites, and the Straight of Jesso; and on the South, China, India, or the Dominions of the great Mogul and Persia : So that it is apparently the largest Region of the whole Continent of Asia, extending it self [sic] farthest, both towards the North and East: In the modern Maps, it is plac'd within the 70th and 170th Degree of Longitude, excluding Muscovitick Tartary; as also between the 40 and 72 Degree of Northern Latitude.
Immediately underneath the scan of this text is the statement, clearly highlighted, that
Tartary was not a tract. It was a country.
Hmm, very emphatic there. Except wait no, the same semantic problem recurs. ‘Country’ need not mean ‘state’. Moreover, in the very same paragraph, Moll (or rather his translator) refers to Tartary as a ‘Region’, which very much disambiguates the idea. Aside from that, it is telling that Moll refers to three distinct ‘Tartaries’: ’Great Tartary’ in Asia, ‘Lesser Tartary’ in Europe, and ‘Muscovite Tartary’ – that is, the eastern territories of the Russian Tsardom. If, as they are saying, ‘Great Tartary’ was a coherent entity, whatever happened to ‘Lesser Tartary’?

Exhibit 3: A 1957 report by the CIA on ‘National Cultural Development Under Communism’

Is a conspiracy theorist… actually believing a CIA document? Yep. I’ll add some context later that further complicates the issue.
Or let us take the matter of history, which, along with religion, language and literature, constitute the core of a people’s cultural heritage. Here again the Communists have interfered in a shameless manner. For example, on 9 August 1944, the Central Committee of the Communist Party, sitting in Moscow, issued a directive ordering the party’s Tartar Provincial Committee “to proceed to a scientific revolution of the history of Tartaria, to liquidate serious shortcomings and mistakes of a nationalistic character committed by individual writers and historians in dealing with Tartar history.” In other words, Tartar history was to be rewritten—let its be frank, was to be falsified—in order to eliminate references to Great Russian aggressions and to hide the facts of the real course of Tartar-Russian relations.
[similar judgement on Soviet rewriting of histories of Muslim areas to suit a pro-Russian agenda]
What’s fascinating about the inclusion of this document is that it is apparently often invoked as a piece of anti-Fomenko evidence, by tying New Chronology in with older Russian-nationalist Soviet revisionism. So not only is it ironic that they’re citing a CIA document, of all things, but a CIA document often used to undermine the spiritual founder of the whole Tartaria ‘theory’ in the first place! But to return to the point, the fundamental issue is that it’s tendentious. This document from 1957 obviously is not going to be that informed on the dynamics of Central Asian ethnicity and history in the way that a modern scholar would be.
In a broader sense, what this document is supposed to prove is that Soviet coverups are why we don’t know about Tartaria. But if most of the evidence came from Western Europe to begin with, why would a Soviet coverup matter? Why wasn’t Tartarian history deployed as a counter-narrative during the Cold War?

Exhibit 4: ‘An 1855 Source’

This is from a footnote in Sir George Cornwalle Lewis’ An Inquiry into the Credibility of the Early Roman History, citing a travelogue by Evariste Huc that had been published in French in 1850 and was soon translated into English. From the digitised version of of Huc’s book on Project Gutenberg (emphasis copied over from the thread):
Such remains of ancient cities are of no unfrequent occurrence in the deserts of Mongolia; but everything connected with their origin and history is buried in darkness. Oh, with what sadness does such a spectacle fill the soul! The ruins of Greece, the superb remains of Egypt,—all these, it is true, tell of death; all belong to the past; yet when you gaze upon them, you know what they are; you can retrace, in memory, the revolutions which have occasioned the ruins and the decay of the country around them. Descend into the tomb, wherein was buried alive the city of Herculaneum,—you find there, it is true, a gigantic skeleton, but you have within you historical associations wherewith to galvanize it. But of these old abandoned cities of Tartary, not a tradition remains; they are tombs without an epitaph, amid solitude and silence, uninterrupted except when the wandering Tartars halt, for a while, within the ruined enclosures, because there the pastures are richer and more abundant.
There’s a paraphrase from Lewis as well, but you can just read it on the thread. The key thing here is that yes, there were abandoned settlements in the steppe. Why must this be indicative of a lost sedentary civilisation, and not instead the remnants of political capitals of steppe federations which were abandoned following those federations’ collapse? Places like Karakorum, Kubak Zar, Almaliq and Sarai were principally built around political functions, being centres for concentration of religious and ritual authority (especially monasteries) and stores of non-movable (or difficult to move) wealth. But individual examples of abandoned settlements are not evidence of broad patterns of settlement that came to be abandoned en masse. Indeed, the very fact that the cited shepherd calls the abandoned location ‘The Old Town’ in the singular implies just how uncommon such sites were – for any given region, there might really only be one of note.

Exhibit 5: Ethnic characteristics in artistic depictions of Chinggis and Timur

I… don’t quite know what to make of these.
Today, we have certain appearance related stereotypes. I think we are very much off there. It looks like Tartary was multi-religious, and multi-cultural. One of the reasons I think so is the tremendous disparity between what leaders like Genghis Khan, Batu Khan, Timur aka Tamerlane looked like to the contemporary artists vs. the appearance attributed to them today.
Ummm, what?
These are apparently what they look like today. These are ‘contemporary’ depictions of Chinggis:
Except, as the guy posting the thread says, these are 15th-18th century depictions… so NOT CONTEMPORARY.
As for Timur, we have:
In what bizzaro world are these contemporary?
We’ll get to Batur Khan in a moment because that’s its own kettle of worms. But can this user not recognise that artists tend to depict things in ways that are familiar? Of course white European depictions of Chinggis and Timur will tend to make them look like white Europeans, while East Asian depictions of Chinggis will tend to make him look Asian, and Middle Eastern depictions of Chinggis and Timur will make them look Middle Eastern. This doesn’t prove that ‘Tartaria’ was multicultural, in fact it you’d have an easier time using this ‘evidence’ to argue that Chinggis and Timur were shapeshifters who could change ethnicities at will!

Exhibit 6: Turkish sculptures

Why this person thinks modern Turkish sculptures are of any use to anyone baffles me. The seven sculptures shown are of Batu Khan (founder of the ‘Golden Horde’/Jochid khanates), Timur, Bumin (founder of the First Turkic Khaganate), Ertugrul (father of Osman, the founder of the Ottoman empire), Babur (founder of the Mughal Empire), Attila the Hun, and Kutlug Bilge Khagan (founder of the Uyghur Khaganate). They are accompanied (except in the case of Ertugrul) by the dates of the empires/confederations that they founded – hence, for instance, Babur’s dates being 1526 to 1858, the lifespan of the Mughal Empire, or Timur’s being 1368 (which seems arbitrary) to 1507 (the fall of Herat to the Shaybanids). To quote the thread:
A few of them I do not know, but the ones I do look nothing like what I was taught at school. Also dates are super bizarre on those plaques.
Again, Turkish sculptors make Turkic people look like Turks. Big surprise. And the dates are comprehensible if you just take a moment to think.
Do Turks know something we don't?
Turkish, evidently.

Exhibit 7: A map from 1652 that the user can’t even read

The other reason why I think Tartary had to be multi-religious, and multi-cultural is its vastness during various moments in time. For example in 1652 Tartary appears to have control over the North America.
https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/1652-nova-totius-terrarum-orbis-geographica-ac-hydrographica-tabula_1-1-jpg.37277/
This speaks for itself.
The thread was later edited to include a link to a post on ‘Tartarians’ in North America made on 7 August 2018, but that’s beside the point here, read at your own leisure (if you can call it ‘leisure’). Except for the part where at one point he admits he can’t read Latin, and so his entire theory in that post is based on the appearance of the word ‘Tartarorum’ in an unspecified context on a map of North America.

Part 2: The Coverup

The official history is hiding a major world power which existed as late as the 19th century. Tartary was a country with its own flag, its own government and its own place on the map. Its territory was huge, but somehow quietly incorporated into Russia, and some other countries. This country you can find on the maps predating the second half of the 19th century.
…Okay then.

Exhibit 8: Google Ngrams

https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/tartary_ngram-jpg.37276/
This screenshot shows that the use of ‘Tartary’ and ‘Tartaria’ declined significantly over time. This is apparently supposed to surprise us. Or maybe it shows that we actually understand the region better…

Part 1a: Back to the existence

You know, a common theme with historical conspiracy theories is how badly they’re laid out, in the literal sense of the layout of their documents and video content. Don’t make a header called ‘The Coverup’ and then only have one thing before jumping back to the evidence for the existence again.

Exhibit 9: A Table

Yet, some time in the 18th century Tartary Muskovite was the biggest country in the world: 3,050,000 square miles.
https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/tartary_huge-13-jpg.37329/
I do not have enough palms to slap into my face. Do they not understand that this is saying how much of Tartary was owned… by foreign powers?

Exhibit 10: Book covers

You can look at the images on the thread itself but here’s a few highlights:
Histories of the Qing conquest of China, because as far as Europeans were concerned the Manchus were Tartars. Proof of Tartaria because…?
An ambassador who never set foot in ‘Tartary’ itself, cool cool, very good evidence there.
There’s also three screenshots from books that aren’t even specifically named, so impossible to follow up. Clearly this is all we need.

Exhibit 11: Maps

The maps are the key think the Tartaria pushers use. All these maps showing ‘Grand Tartary’ or ‘Tartaria’ or what have you. There’s 20 of these here and you can look for yourselves, but the key thing is: why do these people assume that this referred to a single state entity? Because any of these maps that include the world more generally will also present large parts of Africa in generic terms, irrespective of actual political organisation in these regions. And many of the later maps clearly show the tripartite division of the region into ‘Chinese Tartary’, ‘Russian Tartary’, and ‘Independent Tartary’, which you think would be clear evidence that most of this region was controlled by, well, the Chinese (really, the Manchus) and the Russians. And many of these maps aren’t even maps of political organisation, but geographical space. See how many lump all of mainland Southeast Asia into ‘India’. Moreover, the poor quality of the mapping should give things away. This one for instance is very clear on the Black Sea coast, but the Caspian is a blob, and moreover, a blob that’s elongated along the wrong axis! They’re using Western European maps as an indicator of Central Asian realities in the most inept way possible, and it would be sad if it weren’t so hilarious. The fact that the depictions of the size of Tartaria are incredibly inconsistent also seems not to matter.

Exhibit 12: The Tartarian Language

There’s an 1849 American newspaper article referring to the ‘Tartarian’ language, which is very useful thank you, and definitely not more reflective of American ignorance than actual linguistic reality.
The next one is more interesting, because it’s from a translation of some writing by a French Jesuit, referring to the writing of Manchu, and who asserted (with very little clear evidence) that it could be read in any direction. In April last year, Tartaria users [claimed to have stumbled on a dictionary of Tartarian and French](np.reddit.com/Tartaria/comments/bi3aph/tartarian_language_dictionary/) called the Dictionnaire Tartare-Mantchou-François. What they failed to realise is that the French generally called the Manchus ‘Tartare-Mantchou’, and this was in fact a Manchu-French dictionary. In other words, a [Tartare-Mantchou]-[François] dictionary, not a [Tartare]-[Mantchou]-[François] dictionary. It is quite plausible, in fact probable, that the ‘Tartarian’ referred to in the newspaper article was Manchu.

Exhibit 13: Genealogies of Tartarian Kings

Descended From Genghiscan
Reads the comment above this French chart. How the actual hell did OP not recognise that ‘Genghiscan’ is, erm, Genghis Khan? Is it that hard to understand that maybe, just maybe, ‘Tartars’ was what they called Mongols back in the day, and ‘Tartaria’ the Mongol empire and its remnants?

Exhibit 14: Ethnographic drawings

These prove that there were people called Tartars, not that there was a state of Tartaria. NEXT

Exhibit 15: Tartaria’s alleged flag

Images they provide include
https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/tartary_flags-11-jpg.37367/
https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/tartary_flag_6-jpg.37307/
Except there’s one problem. As any EU4 player will tell you, that’s the flag of the Khanate of Kazan. And while they can trot out a few 18th and 19th century charts showing the apparent existence of a Tartarian naval flag, the inconvenient fact that Tartaria would have been landlocked seems not to get in the way. To be sure, their consistent inclusion is odd, given the non-existence of Tartary as a country, and moreover its landlocked status. It seems plausible that the consistent similarity of the designs is just a result of constant copying and poor checking, but on its own it means relatively little.

Exhibit 16: 19th-century racism

https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/flags_of_all_nations_1865-mongolian-1-jpg.37369/
That I think speaks for itself.

Exhibit 17: Flags of Moscow on one particular chart

It is also worth mentioning that in the British Flag Table of 1783, there are three different flags listed as a flag of the Tsar of Moscow. There is also an Imperial Flag of Russia as well as multiple naval flags. And all of them are proceeded by a flag of the Viceroy of Russia.
By that logic, the Royal Navy ran Britain because the Royal Navy ensigns precede the Union Jack. It’s simply a conscious decision to show the flags of individuals before the flags of states. The ‘Viceroy’ (unsure what the original Russian title would be) and ‘Czar’ of Muscovy would presumably be, well, the Emperor of Russia anyway, so as with the British section where the Royal Standard and the flags of naval officers came first, the same seems true of Russia. Also, as a side note, the placement of the USA at the end, after the Persians, the Mughals and ‘Tartarians’, is a fun touch.
Significance of the Viceroy is in the definition of the term. A viceroy is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. Our official history will probably say that it was the Tsar of Russia who would appoint a viceroy of Moscow. I have reasons to doubt that.
Why is the flag of the Viceroy of Moscow positioned prior to any other Russian flag? Could it be that the Viceroy of Moscow was superior to its Czar, and was "supervising" how this Tartarian possession was being run?
No.

Part 3: 1812

This, this is where it gets really bonkers. A key part of this post is arguing that Napoleon’s invasion of Russia was a cover story for a joint invasion against Tartaria gone horrendously wrong. All the stops are being pulled out here.
There is a growing opinion in Russia that French invasion of Russia played out according to a different scenario. The one where Tsar Alexander I, and Napoleon were on the same side. Together they fought against Tartary. Essentially France and Saint Petersburg against Moscow (Tartary). And there is a strong circumstantial evidence to support such a theory.
Oh yes, we’re going there.
Questions to Answer:
1. Saint Petersburg was the capitol of Russia. Yet Napoleon chose to attack Moscow. Why?
He didn’t, he was trying to attack the Russian army. (credit to dandan_noodles).
2. It appears that in 1912 there was a totally different recollection of the events of 1812. How else could you explain commemorative 1912 medals honoring Napoleon?
Because it’s a bit of an in-your-face to Napoleon for losing so badly?
And specifically the one with Alexander I, and Napoleon on the same medal. The below medal says something similar to, "Strength is in the unity: will of God, firmness of royalty, love for homeland and people"
Yeah, it’s showing Alexander I beating Napoleon, and a triumphant double-headed Russian eagle above captured French standards. Also, notice how Alexander is in full regalia, while Napoleon’s is covered up by his greatcoat?
3. Similarity between Russian and French uniforms. There are more different uniforms involved, but the idea remains, they were ridiculously similar.
Ah yes, because fashions in different countries always develop separately, and never get influenced by each other.
How did they fight each other in the dark?
With difficulty, presumably.
Basically, he’s saying that this: https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/1_rus-jpg.37322/
Is too similar to this: https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/1_rus-jpg.37322/
To be coincidental.
OK, whatever. Here’s where it gets interesting:
There was one additional combat asset officially available to Russians in the war of 1812. And that was the Militia. It does appear that this so-called Militia, was in reality the army of Tartary fighting against Napoleon and Alexander I.
Russian VolunteeMilitia Units... Tartarians?
Clearly this man has never encountered the concept of a cossack, an opelchenie, or, erm, a GREATCOAT.
4. Russian nobility in Saint Petersburg spoke French well into the second half of the 19th century. The general explanation was, that it was the trend of time and fashion. Google contains multiple opinions on the matter. * Following the same logic, USA, Britain and Russia should've picked up German after the victory in WW2.
Clearly never heard of the term lingua franca then.
5. This one I just ran into: 19th-century fans were totally into a Napoleon/Alexander romance
https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/treaties_of_tilsit_miniature_-france-_1810s-_side_a-jpg.37314/
https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/napoleonxalexander2-jpg.37310/
https://web.archive.org/web/20200701065421im_/https://www.stolenhistory.org/attachments/napoleon-alexander-jpg.37312/
It is true that after the Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon wrote to his wife, Josephine, that
I am pleased with [Emperor] Alexander; he ought to be with me. If he were a woman, I think I should make him my mistress.
But Napoleon’s ‘honeymoon period’ with Russia following the Treaty of Tilsit should not be seen as indicative of a permanent Napoleonic affection for Russia. Notably, Napoleon’s war with Russia didn’t just end in 1812. How are the Tartaria conspiracists going to explain the War of the Sixth Coalition, when Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops drove the French out of Germany? Did the bromance suddenly stop because of 1812? Or, is it more reasonable to see 1812 as the end result of the bromance falling apart?

Conclusions

So there you have it, Tartaria in all its glorious nonsensicalness. Words cannot capture how massively bonkers this entire thing is. And best of all, I hardly needed my own sources because so much of it is just a demonstration of terrible reading comprehension. Still, if you want to actually learn about some of the history of Inner Eurasia, see below:

Bibliography

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what is a bibliography entry video

If you need to write a research paper, chances are you'll also be required to include a bibliography. Or you might be asked to include a works cited page or a list of references . These are all just different names for the same thing: a list of sources —such as books, articles, or even websites—that you used to research and write your paper. A bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have used (whether referenced or not) in the process of researching your work. In general, a bibliography should include: the authors' names A bibliography is a list of source material, cited in whatever citation style you're required to use in a specific course. An annotation is a summary and/or evaluation. Put the two together and you have an Annotated Bibliography! A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author’s name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first name, period. After the author’s name comes the title of the book. If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. Automatic works cited and bibliography formatting for MLA, APA and Chicago/Turabian citation styles. Now supports 7th edition of MLA. The main purpose of a bibliography entry is to give credit to authors whose work you've consulted in your research. It also makes it easy for a reader to find out more about your topic by delving into the research that you used to write your paper. How to cite a book in a bibliography using MLA. The most basic entry for a book consists of the author’s name, the book title, publisher city, publisher name, year of publication, and medium. Last Name, First Name. Book Title. Publisher City: Publisher Name, Year Published. Medium. Smith, John. The Sample Book. Pittsburgh: BibMe, 2008. Print. The 14 BibTeX entry types. Possibly the most difficult aspect of using BibTeX to manage bibliographies is deciding what entry type to use for a reference source. We list all the 14 BibTeX entry types including their description on when to use. article. An article from a journal, magazine, newspaper, or periodical. Double-space all lines in a bibliography entry. Do not indent the first line of a bibliography entry, but indent the second and subsequent lines 5 spaces, or 1/2″ (1.25 cm) from the left margin. In your Bibliography, Works Cited, or References page, you must include all of the above MLA parenthetical citation . Use Bibliography Makers, a free, easy-to-use, APA citation generator, to build a correctly-formatted references page with all sources cited in your paper. Bibliography Makers Forget formatting guidelines; Let Bibliography Makers Work for You.

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